Role of English Communications for Employees’ Satisfaction, Performance, and Income: A Vietnam Research

Nguyen Van Dung¹, Than Thi Hanh², Nguyen Thi Thu Hang³

¹National Academy of Public Administration, Vietnam

²Foreign Trade University, Vietnam

³Vietnam Trade Union University, Vietnam

ABSTRACT: In the context of globalization, English is becoming more and more critical in developing countries like Vietnam. Learning English in this country is compulsory and systematic from preschool to higher education. As a result, English proficiency put tremendous pressure on Vietnamese workers to have more job opportunities and increased income. The objective of this study was to examine the role of English proficiency in the satisfaction, performance, and wages of Vietnamese workers. This study was conducted through a cross-sectional survey using purposeful sampling (n=200). Multivariable linear regression analysis techniques and moderator regression were applied to prove the proposed hypotheses. The research results show that English proficiency has a positive and significant relationship with Vietnamese workers’ satisfaction, performance, and salary. The factor of language proficiency is a moderating variable between employee satisfaction and compensation.

KEYWORDS: English fluency; work enjoyment; task_performance; salary; Vietnamese Labor

INTRODUCTION

The globalization of English and global capital flows are changing the linguistic landscape of the world of work (Doan & Hamid, 2021). With the advancement of globalization, English is considered and learned by everyone as a global language (Bolton & Botha, 2015a, 2015b; Crystal, 2012; Melitz, 2016). In some non-English speaking countries, English has become a popular and widely used cultural element and is used creatively in social and recreational life (Botha, 2014; Fallatah, 2017; Zhou & Moody, 2017; Botha, 2014), common in social media interactions (Sharma, 2012). Increased migration, global trade, and the advent of digital workforce platforms require workers to understand cultures, languages, and identities better to compensate for differences (Svetlana Ridala, 2020). English is a preeminent language of globalization and the globalized economy (Doan & Hamid, 2021); it is an integral part of the world’s cultural and economic system, including world markets, business, technology, science and culture, and intellectual life on a global scale (Brutt-Griffler, 2002). The economic potential of English as an international language has received broader attention in a globalized world (Ammon, 2010; Hamid, 2016; Holborow, 2007; Majhanovich, 2014).

Recognizing the critical role of English in global socio-economic life, the Ministry of Education and Training of Vietnam has created policies to improve students’ English proficiency. The national foreign language project named ‘Project 2020’ (2008-2020) was implemented to ensure that ‘the majority of Vietnamese students can confidently use foreign languages, especially English. In learning (Toan, 2013). English is currently compulsory in primary education (Nguyen, 2011). At the university level, students must pass a standardized test of English and have an English certificate level 3 (Intermediate level) according to the Vietnamese English Language Proficiency Framework to graduate. This framework includes six stories compatible with the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR: A1, A2; B1, B2; C1, C2). In addition, students may choose from the International English Language Testing System (IELTS), the International English for Communication (TOEIC), or the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) to demonstrate the same level of proficiency in the subject. Graduation destination. Vietnamese students focus on learning English to meet the needs of employers and have many job opportunities (Bui et al., 2017).

Many research results show that compared to other international languages, English is said to have a much higher economic significance (Ammon, 2010). The changing role of English in the job market, especially in developing societies (Doan & Hamid, 2021). The growing importance of English and the need for a higher level of English proficiency, although these needs vary across job sectors (Doan & Hamid, 2021). The relationship between English proficiency and employability has attracted increasing attention from researchers (Barsoum, 2014; Casale & Posel, 2011; Dustmann &Fabbr, 2003; Lindley, 2002). Many research results show that English is related to employability in the job market (Roshid & Chowdhury, 2013). Not only that, but many studies also show a positive relationship between English proficiency and job satisfaction of workers and their income in developed economies. emerging economies (Breton, 1998; Vaillancourt, 1996; Chiswick & Miller, 1995 & 2003; Dustmann & Fabbri, 2003; Bloom & Grenier, 1996; Dávila & Mora, 2000; Van Tubergen & Kalmijn, 2009b); Dustmann, 1994; Lang & Siniver, 2009. Emerging economies (Azam et al., 2013; Angrist et al., 2008; Casale & Posel, 2011). However, there is a lack of such studies in developing countries. Development (Zhang, Dai, & Liu, 2021).

The competitive job market requires good communication skills in the workplace. In the context of increasing globalization, English communication skills play an important role in employment (Dustmann & Fabbr, 2003; Erling, Seargeant, Solly, Chowdhury, & Rahman, 2012; Kossoudji, 1988; Rivera-Batiz, 1990; Shields & Price, 2002; Tainer, 1988; Nguyen, Tran, & Tran, 2022; ). Increased globalization, growing international trade, foreign direct investment, and international labor migration are driving the demand for language competencies to improve. This trend is expected to continue (Antonietti & Loi, 2014; Isphording, 2015). However, in countries where English is not a native language, many scholars argue that since English is not the official language, most people can live without English ability. But the widespread influence of globalization makes it necessary to learn English to find favorable employment opportunities and improve wages in these countries (Bolton & Graddol, 2012; Jeon, 2012; Kirkpatrick, 2015; Le Ha, 2013).

English is essential in Vietnam’s international integration (Pham Cuong, 2016). Although establishing causal relationships between language and economic outcomes, including trade or employment, is itself a difficult task due to methodological challenges in separating the actual impact of English proficiency from a multitude of process-related factors (Erling, 2015; Erling & Seargeant, 2013). Studies on the role of English in Vietnam in recent years have mainly explored the goal of learning English. Recent findings show that adult Vietnamese people, mainly in majors such as medicine, import-export, banking, etc., are in expected demand only after general communication classes (Luu Nguyen Quoc Hung). , 2017). Studies on the relationship between English proficiency to job satisfaction, job performance, and wages in Vietnam have not been explored (Bui et al., 2017). Our current knowledge about the impact of fluent English on job satisfaction, work performance, and income of Vietnamese workers is limited. This study aims to contribute to this theoretical gap.

LITERATURE REVIEWS

The relationship between English fluency and task performance

Many research results show a positive and meaningful relationship between English fluency and work performance. For example, language skills can positively impact dynamics because they enhance communication effectiveness in the workplace (Ku & Zussmann, 2010), improve cognitive skills, and thus enhance performance. In addition, which is related to mental flexibility, inhibitory control, attention control, creativity, flexibility, and originality in problem-solving ((Adesope et al., 2010, Di Paolo & Tansel), 2015). Thus creating a source of higher income (Spence, 1973).

Career advantage and relative success depend on English proficiency (Shields & Price, 2002). A person’s English skills influence job prospects, significantly contributing to their ability to get “safe” and “better” jobs (Roshid & Chowdhury, 2013). Indeed, such a close relationship is found between English skills and employability (Kim, Ehrich, & Ficorilli, 2011). Fluency in English helps employees to have the processing skills – problem-solving skills, and critical thinking needed to cope with the rapidly changing global working environment, where English is increasingly played an important role (Roshid & Chowdhury, 2013; Sahito & Väisänen, 2018; Tainer, 1988; Kristin & Douglas, 1997; Dustmann & Fabbr, 2003; Leslie & Lindley, 2001; Kossoudji, 1988).

The relationship between English fluency and job satisfaction

English proficiency is essential for workers’ economic and social survival and satisfaction (Chiswick & Miller, 2007; Chowdhury & Hamid, 2016; Piller & Takahashi, 2011; Bui et al., 2017; Majhanovich, 2014). Good English learners are expected to have high leisure satisfaction and contribute to happiness at work (Lu & Hu, 2005; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2004; Tkach & Lyubomirsky, 2006; Bailey & Fernando, 2012; Brajsa-zganec, Merkas, & Sverko, 2011; Tkach & Lyubomirsky, 2006; Newman et al. 2014; Zhang, Dai, & Liu, 2021), enriching leisure as well as healthy activities a person’s mental and social life (Zhang, Dai, & Liu, 2021; Botha, 2014; Botha, 2014).

The relationship between English proficiency and salary

The relationship between happiness and income satisfaction has attracted much academic attention (Easterlin, 2001; Li, 2016; Ma & Zhang, 2014; Sohn, 2016). education, language, and work experience of workers (Blázquez & Rendón, 2012). Fluency in English is associated with higher wages (Dustmann, 1999; Dustmann & Fabbr, 2003; Casale & Posel, 2011). The income level is increased by English proficiency (Zhang, Dai, & Liu, 2021; Sandford ’02, Jeremy, 2002). Fluency in English is additional input for income generation (Antonio Di Paolo & Josep Lluís Raymond. 2012; Lindley, 2002), which is a determining factor in job opportunities with higher income (Antonio Di Paolo & Josep Lluís Raymond. 2012; Lindley, 2002) Bleakley & Chin, 2004; Casale & Posel, 2011; Chiswick, 1991; Chiswick & Miller, 1995; Davila & Mora, 2000; Dustmann & Fabbr, 2003; Tainer, 1988), enhancing the impact on income (Barry & Paul, 2003). In some specific cases, English proficiency plays a role in determining income (Tainer, 1988). In contrast, those who are not fluent in English have difficulty finding jobs, especially in high-paying jobs (Carliner, 2000; Leslie & Lindley, 2001), an impediment to the job market. (Schellekens, 2001).

From the literature reviews, the authors have built a research model about what, as shown in Figure 1 below.:

(See in PDF File)

Figure 1 The Research Model

Based on the above documents, the following hypotheses have been formed:

H1. The factor work_enjoyment of employees has a positive and significant relationship with their salary.

H2. The task_performance factor of employees has a positive and significant relationship with their salary.

H3. The English_fluency factor of employees has a positive and significant relationship with their salary.

H4. The employee English_fluency factor moderates the relationship between work_enjoyment and their salary.

H5. The employee’s English_fluency factor is the variable that moderates the relationship between task_performance and their salary.

 RESEARCH METHOD

Surveyed Area

The study was conducted in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City in September 2021. These localities have the most significant number of government agencies and corporations in Vietnam.

Research Samples and Methods

To carry out this study, the authors conducted a survey, collecting the opinions of research participants in two steps: preliminary investigation and formal investigation.

Preliminary investigation

The basis of the view that measuring the economic potential of language or language proficiency is a significant concern in language economics is often achieved using employment and income data (Chiswick & Miller, 2014; Grin, 2006). The research team used a qualitative method through in-depth interviews with psychologists and sociologists to adjust the research scale and improve the questionnaire to suit the characteristics of the survey area. Close. The questionnaire was built based on the results of the research overview and experts’ opinions, including two parts. Part 1 collects demographic information of research participants, such as age, gender, education level, and occupation. Part 2 contains job satisfaction information of employees based on using a modified portion of the scale built by Johri, Misra, & Bhattacharjee (2016), including five items; collect information about the task performance of employees based on using a part of the scale built by Ramos, Pedro, Juan Ramón, Elena, & Linda (2019) including five items. Information on employees’ English fluency is based on the Cambridge English Scale Converter that references the employee’s English certificate. The collaboration of workers is divided into six levels. The lowest tier = 1 point, and the highest tier equals 6 points. The employee’s salary is calculated by the amount of money/ month converted into USD received by the employee in a month at the time of the survey.

The English questionnaire was translated into Vietnamese by two professional interpreters. The translation process is carried out according to the rules to adapt between Vietnamese cultures. After the translators’ and principal investigator’s discussion and final consensus, a single Vietnamese version was created. A professional bilingual expert in sociology contributed to this version to make a final version. This final version was pre-tested on 40 participants selected to be demographically representative of age, sex, education, and occupation. During the assessment, participants were asked to complete this final version. Followed by minor edits made to improve the question structure for easier understanding, and the final Vietnamese version was conducted by applying the official survey.

Official investigation

A selection of employees is employed full-time in finance, health, higher education, scientific research, and politics. These fields require workers to have a high level of English and use it frequently at work. Therefore, the purposeful sampling method sent the questionnaire directly to the respondents. As a result, 200 answer sheets were obtained. The demographic information of study participants (Table 1)..

Table 1. Demographic characteristics of survey participants

RESEARCH RESULTS

R Programming is used to analyze the scale’s reliability, and exploratory factor analysis removes and merges some observed variables to help the scale evaluate concepts more accurately. Correlation analysis considers the validity of the variables in the model, and regression analysis tests hypotheses..

Analyzing the Reliability of the Scales

Testing the scales through Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient to identify and eliminate garbage variables avoids creating misleading factors when analyzing exploratory factor analysis. Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient has a variable value in the interval [0,1]. If a measurement variable has a total correlation coefficient of Corrected Item – Total Correlation ≥ 0.3, then that variable meets the requirements (Cronbach, 1951; Taber, 2018). The verification criterion is that Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient must be greater than 0.6, and the correlation coefficient of the sum variable in each scale must be greater than 0.3 (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). Table 2 shows that the rankings of the factors are all standard. Therefore, all the orders of the elements are reliable and used for subsequent factor analysis.

Table 2. Summary of Reliability and Relative Minimum Variables of Scales

After testing Cronbach’s Alpha, the author uses the Exploratory factor analysis (EFA) method to preliminary evaluate the scales’ unidirectional, convergent, and discriminant values. EFA was used by extracting the Principal Components Analysis Factor and Varimax rotation to group the factors. With a sample size of 200, the factor loading of the observed variables must be greater than 0.5; variables converge on the same element and are distinguished from other factors. In addition, the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) coefficient, which is used to consider the adequacy of factor analysis, must be in the range of 0.5 ≤ KMO ≤ 1 (Cerny & Kaiser, 1977; Kaiser, 1974; Snedecor, George, Cochran & William, 1989).

The analysis results in Table 3 show that all factor loading coefficients of the observed variables are greater than 0.5, Bartlett test with Sig meaning. = 0.000 with KMO coefficient = 0.868. All ten items using EFA are extracted into two factors with Eigenvalues greater than one and Cumulative variance percent = 56.816%. Thus, the research model consisting of 3 independent variables and one dependent variable is used for multivariable linear regression analysis and detailed regression analysis to test the proposed hypothesis.

 Table 3. Exploratory factor analysis

Call: principal(nfactors = 2, rotate = “varimax”)

Standardized loadings (pattern matrix) based upon correlation matrix

item  RC1  RC2   h2   u2 com

Task_performance2    7 0.80      0.65 0.35 1.0

Task_performance5   10 0.77      0.61 0.39 1.1

Task_performance1    6 0.75      0.59 0.41 1.1

Task_performance4    9 0.72      0.59 0.41 1.2

Task_performance3    8 0.69      0.50 0.50 1.1

Work_enjoyment1      1      0.78 0.63 0.37 1.1

Work_enjoyment4      4      0.76 0.57 0.43 1.0

Work_enjoyment5      5      0.72 0.53 0.47 1.1

Work_enjoyment3      3      0.70 0.54 0.46 1.2

Work_enjoyment2      2      0.65 0.47 0.53 1.2

RC1  RC2

SS loadings           2.94 2.75

Proportion Var        0.29 0.28

Cumulative Var        0.29 0.57

Proportion Explained  0.52 0.48

Cumulative Proportion 0.52 1.00

Mean item complexity =  1.1

Test of the hypothesis that 2 components are sufficient.

The root mean square of the residuals (RMSR) is  0.08

with the empirical chi square  105.75  with prob <  1.4e-11

Fit based upon off diagonal values = 0.95

Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy (KMO)=0.863

Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity               Approx (Chi-Square =619.526; df =45; Sig.=0.000)

Total Variance Explained= 56.816 %

Pearson correlation analysis

The author uses Pearson correlation analysis to analyze the correlation between quantitative variables. Figure 2 shows that, at the 95% significance level, the correlation coefficient indicates that the relationship between the dependent and independent variables is statistically significant (Sig. < 0.05). The magnitude of the correlation coefficients ensures that the variables used to analyze the multivariate linear regression model and the control variable regression are in the next step.

 Figure 2 Pearson correlation analysis results

(See in PDF File)

Linear regression analysis and Moderation regression

Multivariable linear regression analysis on the relationship between 3 independent variables, Work_enjoyment, Task_performance, English_fluency, and one dependent variable, Salary (model1), and Moderation regression Analysis to determine the moderating role of variable M_English_fluency in the relationship between variable X_Task_performance and Salary, X_Work_enjoyment and variable Salary (model2). Table 4 shows that model1 has R2 = 0.237 and model2 has R2 = 0.252. This result shows that the linear regression model is built to fit the data set model1 = 0.237% and model2 = 0.252%, respectively. Moderation regression Analysis (model2) shows that the variable M_English_fluency is a moderation variable that moderates the relationship between the X_Work_enjoyment variable and the Salary variable in a positive direction. The effect of the variable X_Work_enjoyment and the variable Salary depends on the corresponding increase or decrease of the variable M_English_fluency. There is no evidence that the variable M_English_fluency moderates the relationship between the variable X_Task_performance and the variable Salary (p.value>0.05). Table 4 also shows that the F-test is statistically significant with 95% confidence with p.value = 0.000, showing that the regression analysis model is valid. Moderating role of variable M_English_fluency in the relationship between variable X_Task_performance and variable Salary is not accepted because of 95% confidence (p.value>0.05).

Table 4 The results of multiple linear regression analysis

====================================================================================

                                                   Dependent variable:             

                                     ———————————————–

                                                         Salary                    

                                            (model11)               (model22)         

————————————————————————————

Work_enjoyment                              0.242***                               

                                             (0.067)                               

Task_performance                             0.159**                               

                                             (0.063)                               

English_fluency                             0.188***                               

                                             (0.063)                               

X_Task_performance                                                   0.147**       

                                                                     (0.057)       

X_Work_enjoyment                                                    0.192***       

                                                                     (0.059)       

M_English_fluency                                                   0.213***       

                                                                     (0.058)       

X_Task_performance:M_English_fluency                                 -0.086        

                                                                     (0.057)       

X_Work_enjoyment:M_English_fluency                                  0.263***       

                                                                     (0.074)       

Constant                                    1.268***                3.039***       

                                             (0.238)                 (0.050)       

————————————————————————————

Observations                                   200                     200         

R2                                            0.237                   0.252        

Adjusted R2                                   0.225                   0.233        

Residual Std. Error                     0.653 (df = 196)        0.649 (df = 194)   

F Statistic                          20.280*** (df = 3; 196) 13.088*** (df = 5; 194)

====================================================================================

Note:                                                    *p<0.1; **p<0.05; ***p<0.01

Table 4 shows that, with 95% confidence, there is a positive and significant relationship between the Work_enjoyment variable and the Salary variable with regression coefficient β = 0.242 and 95% confidence (p.value = 0.000), between variable Task_performance with variable Salary with regression coefficient β = 0.199 and 95% confidence (p.value = 0.001), between variable English_fluency and variable Salary with regression coefficient β = 0.188 and confidence 95% (p. value=0.000). The M_English_fluency moderates the relationship between the variable X_Work_enjoyment and Salary with the regression coefficient β = 0.263 and 95% confidence (p.value=0.000).

 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

Discussion

Firstly, the research results (Table 4) show that hypothesis H1 is accepted; the worker’s work_enjoyment factor has a positive and significant relationship with their salary. This result is similar to the previous study by Chiswick & Miller, 2007; Chowdhury & Hamid, 2016; Piller & Takahashi, 2011; Bui et al., 2017; Majhanovich, 2014. Similar to other contexts, in the Vietnamese context, good English learners are expected to have high leisure satisfaction and contribute to happiness at work (Lu & Co. Hu, 2005; Sheldon & Lyubomirsky, 2004; Tkach & Lyubomirsky, 2006; Bailey & Fernando, 2012; Brajsa-zganec, Merkas, & Sverko, 2011; Tkach & Lyubomirsky, 2006; Newman et al. 2014; Zhang, Dai, & Liu, 2021; Zhang, Dai, & Liu, 2021; Botha, 2014; Botha, 2014). Similarly, the results of this study further confirm the economic benefits of English proficiency, such as career success and personal achievement, and happiness (Angrist et al., 2008; Azam et al., 2013; Van Tubergen & Kalmijn, 2005 & 2009b).

Secondly, the research results (Table 4) show that hypothesis H2 is accepted; that is, the task performance factor of employees has a positive and significant relationship with the salary of employees. This result is similar to the previous finding of Ku & Zussmann (2010), Adesope et al. (2010), Di Paolo & Tansel (2015) & Spence (1973). This result shows that in Vietnam, workers have good English abilities related to mental flexibility, inhibition control, attention control, creativity, flexibility, and originality. In problem-solving improves cognitive skills and thus enhances job performance. The results of this study continue to prove that English-speaking workers help employees to have the processing skills – problem-solving skills, and critical thinking skills necessary to cope with the rapidly changing environment. of the global workplace where English plays an increasingly important role (Roshid & Chowdhury, 2013; Sahito & Väisänen, 2018; Tainer, 1988; Kristin & Douglas, 1997; Dustmann & Fabbr, 2003; Leslie & Lindley, 2001; Kossoudji, 1988). Moreover, this result also shows that income satisfaction is one of the most important determinants of happiness (Bartolini et al., 2017; Li, 2016; Ma & Zhang, 2014; Sohn, 2016). ; Krashen, 2003).

Thirdly, the research results (Table 4) show that hypothesis H3 is accepted; that is, the English_fluency factor of employees has a positive and significant relationship with their salary. This result further confirms that high professional qualifications and English ability lead to better employment, income, and occupational status (Ho & Alcorso, 2004; Syed & Murray, 2009). This result is similar to previous findings of Bloom & Grenier (1996), Breton (1998), Chiswick (2008), Chiswick & Miller (1995 & 2003) & Dávila & Mora (2000), Angrist et al. (2008) ), Azam et al. (2013), Casale & Posel (2011) & van Tubergen & Kalmijn (2009a).

Fourthly, the research results (Table 4) show that hypothesis H4 is accepted, that is, the employee’s English_fluency factor moderates the relationship between work_enjoyment and salary. This result confirms that excellent English learners often expect relatively high-income satisfaction (Easterlin, 1974, 1995, 2001; Clark et al., 2008; Hagerty & Veenhoven, 2003). This result demonstrates that people with English proficiency have a higher chance of employment, tending to outperform others in the job market, with improved career performance (Botha, 2014; Vandenbroucke, 2016; Wei & Su, 2015). In developed countries, immigrants with a relatively higher level of English tend to achieve higher levels of income satisfaction (Carliner, 2000; Chiswick & Miller, 2003; Dustmann & Fabbri, 2003; Bloom & Grenier, 1996); Dávila & Mora, 2000; Breton, 1998; Vaillancourt, 1996; Chiswick & Miller, 1995 & 2003; Dustmann, 1994; Lang & Siniver, 2009. This case is similar to findings in emerging economies (Levinsohn, 2007; Azam et al., 2013; Chakraborty & Bakshi, 2016; Munshi & Rosenzweig, 2006).

Finally, the research results (Table 4) show that the null hypothesis H5 is not accepted; that is, no evidence has been found for the regulation of the English_fluency factor of employees as a moderating variable for the relationship between employees and employees. task_performance and their salary is deprecated. Previous studies have shown that immigrants with relatively higher English proficiency in developed countries are more likely to have higher income satisfaction (Carliner, 2000; Chiswick & Miller, 2003; Dustmann & Fabbri, 2003). 2003; Bloom & Grenier, 1996; Dávila & Mora, 2000; Breton, 1998; Vaillancourt, 1996; Chiswick & Miller, 1995 & 2003; Dustmann, 1994; Lang & Siniver, 2009. The case is similar for countries with a background in emerging economies (Levinsohn, 2007; Azam et al., 2013; Chakraborty & Bakshi, 2016; Munshi & Rosenzweig, 2006). Perhaps the results of this study are similar to those of Bui et al.(2017), Luu Nguyen Quoc Hung (2017), Toan (2013) & Nguyen (2011), that Vietnam is too focused on learning English but lacks the association of English with professional skills.

Conclusion

As in other developing countries, in Vietnam, English can open the door to more prestigious, high-paying, and happy careers (Chiswick & Miller, 2015 & 2009). Vietnamese employers and workers need to consider English as a global language which has become an essential type of human capital and is required by many employers in recruitment (Bloch, 1995; Warschauer, 2000).

Education institutions in Vietnam need to develop English language training programs with vocational skills, as workers get high wages if their language skills match the language requirements in the workplace (Chiswick & Miller, 2010; Aldashev et al., 2009; Luan & Thanh, 2022). In addition, Vietnamese workers need to realize that learning English is no longer a privilege but consider lifelong English learning (Butler, 2015; Huang, 2016) because lower English proficiency is a barrier to achievement. And immigrant labor market success (Brooks, 1996; Evans, 1987; Stevens, 2005) can sometimes cause job losses (Syed & Murray, 2009).

LIMITATIONS

As with other empirical studies, there are limitations to this study that should be considered when discussing the results. First, our survey method reflects the subjective perception of the respondents toward the questions being investigated. Personal data has inherent disadvantages that are hard to avoid in surveys (Pakpour, Gellert, Asefzadeh, Updegraff, Molloy, & Sniehotta, 2016). Our data is collected over a single period, so there are certain limitations in analyzing and evaluating the results (Xin & Zhanyou, 2019; Chien & Thanh, 2022). Future research should combine cross-sectional and longitudinal studies.

The purposeful sampling method has certain limitations, not fully reflecting population characteristics (Lin et al., 2016; Strong et al., 2018; Thanh, Tung, Nguyen, Pham, & Nguyen, 2021). In addition, our survey was conducted in a Vietnamese cultural context. Therefore, more general statements are needed than could be made by applying the development research model and research conclusions to other countries. Other countries and cultures (Sun et al., 2012; Thanh, Hiep, & Tung, 2021).

English proficiency is associated with demographic variables, so further research needs to examine the relationship between British people’s satisfaction and income, which is affected by factors such as gender, occupation, and education. education (Azam et al, 2013; Chakraborty & Bakshi, 2016; Munshi & Rosenzweig, 2006). For a richer understanding of this research issue, further research should also examine the relationship between English proficiency and employability (Barsoum, 2014; Bui et al., 2017; Erling, 2015; Bui et al., 2017; Erling et al., 2013; Bleakley & Chin, 2004; Casale & Posel, 2011; Erling, 2014), individual migration and national economic development (Erling, 2015; Hamid, 2015), the level of other benefits in the job market (Roshid & Chowdhury, 2013).

Acknowledgments

National Academy of Public Administration.

Conflict of interest

All authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.

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