Whether Chinese High School Graduates Have an Equal Opportunity to Enter a Same University? – Based on the Analysis of the Provincial Quotas Policy (PQP)

Zilin Zhou

The University of Hong Kong

ABSTRACT: This essay examines the impact of China’s Provincial Quotas Policy (PQP) on the equality of opportunity for high school students to enter the same university. It begins by introducing key definitions such as the National Higher Education Entrance Examination (Gaokao), the “985” and “211” Projects, batches of university admissions, and PQP. Subsequently, it presents the debates surrounding PQP. Opponents argue that it leads to an uneven distribution of enrollment quotas, regional inequities, and issues like “Gaokao migration.” Supporters contend that it has mitigated the widening gap in access opportunities and reduced the gender gap. Through an analysis of the Gaokao Enrollment Rate (GER) and case studies of the Beijing Institute of Technology (BIT) and Beijing Foreign Studies University (BFSU), it is found that the allocation of university enrollment slots in each province does not proportionally align with the number of applicants or the population. Using SPSS to analyze the factors influencing the formation of PQP, it is determined that factors such as GDP, population, the number of high school graduates, and the number of local high schools play significant roles. The significance of the data is discussed in relation to Gaokao and social mobility, as well as the connection between Gaokao and the Hukou policy. Finally, the complements to PQP, including special admission schemes and awarded points for minority candidates, are introduced. The conclusion is that while there are efforts to address the inequality, if the issue of geographic stratification remains unresolved, educational inequality in China may persist.

KEYWORDS: Provincial Quotas Policy (PQP), Equality of opportunity, Gaokao (National Higher Education Entrance Examination), Education in China,  “985” and “211” Projects.

I. INTRODUCTION

It is a common phenomenon in Chinese university that if you are from a less developed province, your schoolmates are less likely from the same place  where  you  come.   It is also believed that the university is ranked higher, the phenomenon becomes more normal. The potential reasons might relate to the China’s university entrance examination – so called Gaokao, which mostly determines a high school student’s destination of university. Access to higher education in China is a subject marked by the intricate interplay of policies, such as Provincial Quotas Policy (PQP). These policies significantly influence the admission process, posing questions about equity among high school graduates striving to enter the same university. PQP dictates the allocated slots for each province, affecting students’ chances based on their provincial origin.

The formation and execution of PQP have sparked discussions about fairness in university admissions. Analyses reveal disparities in opportunity: some provinces receive more slots, potentially benefiting their candidates, while others face limitations. This situation prompts scrutiny into the underlying mechanisms behind these policies, questioning if they align with principles of equal opportunity. This inquiry delves into the impact and formation of PQP, assessing whether they uphold equitable access for all high school graduates. Understanding the dynamics of these policies is pivotal in evaluating the extent to which Chinese students have an even chance to secure admission to the same university, irrespective of their provincial backgrounds.

Hence, this essay will first give brief introduction of certain definitions (Gaokao, “985” & “211” Projects, Batches of Universities, PQP) that will be frequently mentioned in the following parts. After that, debates on whether PQP has caused more unequal issues or not will be presented. In the third part, certain data and facts of PQP have been found, which may indicate the imbalance allocation of enrollment quota within different province. Next, quantitative analysis is used with the aim to show certain factors that could influence the formation of PQP. In the penultimate section, the significance behind the data and PQP has been mentioned, including the social mobility and Hukou system in China. Lastly, some of the complements of PQP have been notified.

II. KEY WORDS DEFINITION

1. China’s National Higher Education Entrance Examination (Gaokao)

Gaokao is China’s National Higher Education Entrance Examination, a crucial standardized test taken by students who wish to pursue higher education. This rigorous exam covers various subjects like Chinese literature, mathematics, and foreign languages, among others. The Gaokao is renowned for its difficulty and the immense pressure it places on students due to its pivotal role in shaping their academic future (Jia & Ericson, 2017). Hence, successful performance in the Gaokao is a key determinant for admission into prestigious universities and significantly impacts a student’s career trajectory.

2. “985” and “211” Projects

The “985” and “211” initiatives are significant higher education programs in China, aiming to elevate the country’s universities to world-class standards. Launched in 1998, the “985 Project” refers to an effort to create world-class universities in China. These universities receive significant funding and support for infrastructure, faculty, and research facilities. Launched in 1995, the “211” Project aims to strengthen about 100 Chinese universities by prioritizing funding and resources. It focuses on building and developing key universities across various disciplines to improve teaching and research quality. The project has significantly enhanced the infrastructure, faculty expertise, and overall academic quality of the participating institutions (Xinhua, 2015). While both projects seek to elevate Chinese universities, they have different scopes and approaches. The “985” Project targets a smaller number of elite universities with a strong emphasis on research, whereas the “211” Project has a broader reach, aiming to upgrade a larger group of universities across various disciplines. Currently, although China seems to no longer emphasize the category between “985” and “211”, moving into a new system called Double-first-class Plan, these two projects may still be able to show the Chinese university’s quality comprehensively.

3. Batches of Universities for Students to Apply

In China, the university application system often operates in different batches. The first round is called Early Admission batches. Some universities offer early admission, such as the Early Decision or Early Action in the United States (Rothenberg, 2023), allowing students to apply before the regular admissions cycle. The second round is called Regular Admission batches. After the Gaokao results, the majority of universities admit students through the regular admission process. Students submit their scores, academic records, and other requirements for consideration. This regular process include two sub-batches, they are considered as First Enrollment Batch (Yiben) and Second Enrollment Batch (Erben). It is suggested that the First Enrollment Batch is more likely to let students get into a prestige university than the Second one. Finally, another round is called Special Admission batches. That is to say, some universities allocate a portion of seats through independent admissions, favoring students with special talents, ethnic minorities, or those from rural or poverty-stricken areas. In general, these batches allow different opportunities and pathways for students to apply to universities in China, offering a chance for diverse backgrounds and talents to be recognized.

4. Provincial Quotas Policy (PQP)

The last crucial definition is the Provincial Quotas Policy (PQP). Literally speaking, PQP means the allotment of enrollment quotas for the Chinese Gaokao is based on provincial allocations. Following adaptations over the years since the ancient Chinese imperial examinations (Keju), as per the Ministry of Education (MOE), the current allocation of enrollment quotas for the Gaokao relies on two primary methods: firstly, colleges and universities establish their enrollment plans within the nationally set enrollment scale, covering professional and provincial enrollments; secondly, institutions can reserve up to 1% of their total enrollment for transfers (MOE, 2023).

According to Rong & Deng (2022), these Provincial Quotas are distributed among provinces and cities following specific principles. Presently, universities need to holistically consider various factors when devising annual enrollment plans for different majors and provinces. For instance, since 2016, Peking University (PKU) has delineated principles for allocating enrollment quotas in its admission guidelines. PKU factors in its specific circumstances and assesses multiple elements like the number of high school graduates per province, the caliber of prospective students, regional development coherence, and prior enrollment strategies to establish provincial-level enrollment plans, employing their set criteria (PKU, 2023). As Chen et al. (2020) argued, based on some analysis, there are several crucial aspects guiding the Provincial Quotas, including the university’s context, high school graduate numbers in each province, prospective students’ quality, regional development harmony, and past enrollment schemes. However, even it is believed that the PQP is designed based on different factors, certain issues still exist within this policy.

III. DEBATES ON PROVINCIAL QUOTAS POLICY (PQP)

With the development of Chinese social condition and education system, it is admitted that more and more factors have been put in the system, but it seems that the outcome of PQP has resulted in an uneven distribution of university enrollment quotas across provinces, not aligning proportionally with candidate numbers or population sizes.

1. Protestants of PQP

Protestants of this policy have argued that the allocation of quotas is not always proportional to population or the number of candidates, leading to disparities between provinces. Specifically, Provincial Quotas may lead to regional inequities where students from provinces with lower quotas face greater challenges in accessing higher education. This perpetuates educational disparities among regions (Lau, 2020; Hamnett, et al. 2019). Besides, provinces with higher quotas may face increased competition and pressure due to an influx of students from other regions. This can strain educational resources, potentially compromising the quality of education (Huang & Zhu, 2020). Similarly, students in provinces with lower quotas may have limited opportunities for higher education, impacting their future prospects. This can contribute to a cycle of disadvantage for certain regions. In addition, the existence of quotas has given rise to “Gaokao migration”, where families move from low-quota provinces to those with higher quotas, seeking better educational opportunities. This can disrupt social stability and create resource imbalances (Li & Zhang, 2023). Moreover, the competition for limited slots in high-quota provinces may create opportunities for corruption or fraudulent practices in the Gaokao system. This can undermine the integrity of the college admissions process (Hu, 2020).

2. Supporters of PQP

However, there are also some supports of PQP argued that the expansion of higher education has disrupted the widening gap in access opportunities between different regions. That is to say, due to the expansion of higher education and the adjustment of PQP, disparities between rural and ethnic groups did not increase, and within provinces, the rural inequality diminished (Liu & Li, 2014). Moreover, according to Rong & Deng (2021), there even has been a notable reduction in the gender gap.

IV. FACTS OF PROVINCIAL QUOTAS POLICY (PQP)

In order to test whether PQP has caused more unequal issues to the Chinese society or not, the Gaokao Enrollment Rate (GER) and two specific cases – Beijing Institute of Technology (BIT) & Beijing Foreign Studies University (BFSU) are elected here to testify.

1. The Gaokao Enrollment Rate (GER)

The Gaokao Enrollment Rate (GER) is a standard coefficient used to determine the difficulty level of the Gaokao in a province or city. The formula is shown as follow:

GER=00%

Here, GER equals the total number of admissions by major participating universities and colleges in a province divided by the total number of candidates participating in the Gaokao in that province for the respective year. A higher enrollment rate suggests relatively easier access to universities, whereas a lower rate signifies greater difficulty in university admission. The pivotal factor influencing the Gaokao difficulty level in an area is not the test’s complexity, the admission score, or the total number of candidates. Rather, it is the final enrollment rate.

The following figure shows the nationwide GER from Chinese provinces in 2021[1].

Table 1. College Entrance Examination Admission Rate of Each Province

(SEE IN PDF FILE)

This table is arranged in descending order of the number of candidates participating in the Gaokao examination in each province. It then lists the acceptance rates of provinces in the

“985” Project, “211” Project, first-batch universities, and second-batch universities. The three provinces with the highest and lowest acceptance rates are highlighted in red and green, respectively. Darker colors indicate higher values. Ironically, despite Beijing, Tianjin, and Shanghai having the fewest candidates taking the exams nationwide, their acceptance rates are extremely high. Conversely, in provinces like Henan and Guangdong with the highest number of exam-takers, the acceptance rates are notably lower. Specifically, Beijing’s 211 acceptance rate is 15% higher than Henan’s, while the number of 211 universities in Beijing is more than double that of Jiangsu (MOE, 2008).

2. Case study: Beijing Institute of Technology (BIT) & Beijing Foreign Studies University (BFSU).

To further analyze this phenomenon, this essay also specifically chose Beijing Institute of Technology (BIT) and Beijing Foreign Studies University (BFSU) as two examples.

1. Case Introduction

The Beijing Institute of Technology (BIT) is a prestigious public research university located in Beijing, China. Founded in 1940, it is one of the nation’s key universities under the direct administration of the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology. BIT has developed into a comprehensive university, excelling in science, engineering, management, and humanities. With a commitment to academic excellence and technological advancement, BIT is recognized as one of the “985” Project members both nationally and internationally for its contributions to research and education (BIT, 2023). Beijing Foreign Studies University (BFSU) stands as one of China’s premier institutions

dedicated to foreign language studies, international relations, and global communication. Established in 1941, BFSU holds a rich heritage of cultivating linguistic expertise and fostering global understanding. Known for producing graduates with exceptional language skills and cultural understanding, BFSU is recognized as one of the “211” Project members (BFSU, 2023).

Hence, it is suggested that BIT and BFSU contribute to the diversity and specialization within the Chinese higher education landscape. In other words, BIT’s emphasis on technology and BFSU’s focus on language and culture, catering to different academic disciplines and career paths. Besides, these two universities also stand for the different kinds of elite universities in China.

1. Data Description

The data here represents the Year 2021 and was extracted from the official websites of National Bureau of Statistics of China (2021)[2], BIT (2021)[3] and BFSU (2021)[4].

Table 2. High School Graduates Ration of China in 2021

(SEE IN PDF FILE)

Table 3. Enrollment Quota of BIT in 2021 Table

(SEE IN PDF FILE)

Table 4. Enrollment Quota of BFSU in 2021

(SEE IN PDF FILE)

It is obvious from the figures that even Beijing (yellow)’s population only accounts for almost 0% of the whole China’s high school graduates, its enrollment of BIT and BFSU respectively accounts for 11% and 15%. On the contrary, even the Shandong (Green) and Guangdong (Orange) cities’ high school graduates ratio have accounted for 7% and 8% of the whole population, their enrollment ratios in BIT and BFSU only account for 5%, 3% and 6%, 4% respectively.

Hence, both GER and selected cases have shown that the allocation of university enrollment slots within each province does not align proportionally with the number of applicants or the population size.

V. FACTORS OF THE FORMATION OF PROVINCIAL QUOTAS POLICY (PQP)

Under such circumstances, it is necessary to analyze the potential factors that influence the formation of PQP. It is suggested that understanding these factors helps ensure fair and equitable access to higher education across different regions. It allows policymakers to identify disparities and rectify them to provide equal opportunities to all students.

1. Factors Chosen

Here, GDP, population, urban population, rural population, high school graduates, the count of local high schools and local ethnic minority ratio are picked as vital factors. The chosen reason is that GDP and population may stand for a province’s economic situation, high school graduates and the count of local high schools could stand for a province’s educational situation, and local ethnic minority ratio may focus more on the special groups within a province.

2. Data Analysis

In conducting this study, the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) was instrumental in analyzing the relationship between the mentioned factors and the quotas setting. SPSS facilitated correlation analysis, allowing for an in-depth exploration of the extent to which education influences earning potential. The results are as follows:

 Table 5. The Correlation between Enrollment Quotas of BIT and BFSU

The correlation coefficient between BFSU Enrollment Quota and BIT Enrollment Quota is 0.997, displaying a significance level of 0.01, indicating a highly significant positive correlation between BFSU Enrollment Quota and BIT Enrollment Quota. This indicates that most of the universities have adopted the same measurement when forming the PQP.

Table 6. The Correlation between Several Factors and Enrollment Quotas

The correlation analysis conducted between BIT Enrollment Quota and various socio-economic factors revealed intriguing relationships. While BIT Enrollment Quota demonstrated no significant correlation with economic factors like GDP, it showcased strong positive correlations with demographic aspects such as Population, Urban Population, Rural Population, High School Graduates, and the number of Local High Schools. These findings imply that BIT Enrollment Quota is more intimately associated with demographic variables rather than economic indicators, suggesting a notable link between enrollment quotas and the population landscape. Additionally, there was a substantial negative correlation between BIT Enrollment Quota and Local Ethnic Minority Ratio, indicating a potential impact on minority enrollment proportions.

Similarly, the correlation analysis involving BFSU Enrollment Quota unveiled noteworthy patterns. BFSU Enrollment Quota showed substantial positive correlations with economic indicators like GDP and demographic elements such as Population, Urban Population, Rural Population, High School Graduates, and the count of Local High Schools. These findings imply that BFSU Enrollment Quota appears to have strong ties with both economic and demographic factors, hinting at a comprehensive relationship between enrollment quotas and socio-economic characteristics. However, similar to BIT Enrollment Quota, there was no significant correlation between BFSU Enrollment Quota and Local Ethnic Minority Ratio, suggesting a lack of direct association between this quota and the proportion of local ethnic minorities in enrollment.

Hence, through this software, the correlation analyses between BIT and BFSU Enrollment Quotas and various socio-economic parameters underscore their divergent associations. Although the sample is not huge enough, it can be inferred that GDP, population, high school graduates number, local high schools number have almost been considered by universities, while local special group people might be ignored to some extent. Such findings highlight the pivotal role of certain factors in shaping PQP and influencing the final opportunities to get into a prestige university.

VI. THE SIGNIFICANCE BEHIND THE DATA

1. Gaokao and Social Mobility

Actually, the quota itself is not an issue, the essence of this phenomenon is that a higher quota means a person are more easier to get into a better university, while getting into a prestige university means a person may have more opportunities to get social mobility.

According to Blau (1977), social mobility signifies the dynamic change in an individual’s societal position. It acts as a key force driving different shifts in social structures, influencing people’s positions, the allocation of resources and authority, and molding their ways of life, actions, mental outlooks, and values. Besides, Bourdieu (1984) suggests that diverse types of capital are interconnected and interchangeable. Hence, he argued that social capital, particularly in the form of cultural resources and social connections, significantly influences educational opportunities and outcomes, contributing to the perpetuation of social inequalities. In other words, getting into a prestige university does not only mean good grades, but also has significant influence on one’s intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional, community and even broader growth (Wanti, et al. 2023).

To be more specific, from ancient time, Chinese people believed that education can change one’s life. Currently, it is believed that top-tier universities often offer high-quality education, advanced resources, and expert faculty, providing students with a robust academic foundation (Gu & Magaziner, 2016). In addition, graduating from a reputable institution enhances job prospects. Employers often value degrees from esteemed universities, offering better job placements and career advancements (Zhuang, 2017). According to the Economist (2021), individuals achieving high scores in the gaokao tend to attend more prestigious universities and secure elevated income levels. Moreover, attending a renowned university allows students to build strong networks with peers, faculty, and alumni, which can also be advantageous for future career opportunities and collaborations (Howlett, 2022). Finally, prestigious universities also provide an environment that fosters personal growth, exposure to diverse perspectives, and critical thinking skills, contributing to holistic development (Lauder, 2020). Hence, the importance of getting into a good university lies in the comprehensive benefits it offers, ranging from academic excellence and career advantages to personal growth and global recognition.

2. Gaokao & Hukou Policy

Moreover, since the Gaokao is hugely important in China and PQP has been set stably, more Gaokao migrants have emerged which cause Hukou system becoming another important issue. Hukou system is a household registration system that has been in place since 1950s. According to Young (2013), Hukou system was initally set up with the aim to classify Chinese residents into urban or rural identity based on their place of birth. Such a system may help the government in means of population control, resources allocation and social management. However, the influence of Hukou system in education not only exists between urban and rural areas, but also between different provinces, even students are all from urban areas.

As the data shown previously, different provinces have different quotas on enrollment. Hence, students with high-quota provinces’ Hukou often have advantages in Gaokao admission, benefiting from lower admission thresholds or reserved quotas in top-tier universities. Conversely, those from low-quota areas may face tougher competition and higher score requirements due to limited educational resources and historical biases favoring urban applicants.

Under this logic, most parents from low-quota areas are eager to move to high-quota areas to let their children have a better opportunities to get in prestige universities. However, this movement will not only enhance high-quota areas’ competition and may seem to be unfair to the high-quota local citizens, but also will put certain unnecessary burdens to those migrant families. To be more specific, high-quota areas are often those high-GDP areas, which means the house and living prices are extremely higher than average. Therefore, for those migrant families, if they want to get a new Hukou in those high-quota areas, most parents need to work harder and those children need to fit in the new areas rapidly and may gain more challenges due to the local pressure and competitiveness.

VII. THE COMPLEMENTS OF PROVINCIAL QUOTAS POLICY (PQP)

Since the PQP has been criticized a lot, MOE indeed come up with some complements to mitigate the gap between different groups of students. The most significant two are called Special Admission Schemes and Awarded Points for minority candidates.

1. The Special Admission Schemes of Gaokao

The Gaokao’s Special Admission Schemes encompass several strategies and concessions designed to offer opportunities beyond the traditional examination system. According to Szekely (2023), special concessions are offered to members of ethnic minorities and specific groups, providing them with certain advantages or allowances in the admission process. Besides, universities implement special admission schemes favoring students in rural or poverty-stricken areas, promoting inclusivity and addressing disparities in access to education. In addition, some universities allocate seats for students with exceptional talents or skills through independent admissions or specialized programs, focusing on areas beyond academic achievements. Generally, there are eight different kinds of Special Admission Schemes (Gaokao, 2023):

Table 7. List of Special Admission Schemes of Gaokao

(SEE IN PDF FILE)

These schemes prioritize inclusivity, recognize diverse talents, and address regional disparities, ensuring a more holistic and accessible approach to higher education admissions in China.

2. The Awarded Points for Minority Candidates

The term of awarded points for minority candidates refers to the policy of providing additional points or preferential treatment in the Gaokao for ethnic minority students in China. This policy aims to promote educational equity and inclusivity by addressing historical socio-economic disparities among different ethnic groups in the country.

Take Guizhou, one of the provinces in China with the most ethnic minorities, as an example, according to the implementation measures, the additional points and criteria for Gaokao in Guizhou Province are as follows (GOV, 2019):

Table 8. The Awarded Points for Minority Candidates in Guizhou Province

(SEE IN PDF FILE)

It can be found from this text that all of the children of martyrs, retired soldiers, minority candidates and rural household students are been considered during the enrollment process. These actions may diminish the influence of settled PQP to some extent. But whether these methods will cause other types of inequality is another question need to be discussed.

CONCLUSION

In short, it can be inferred from this essay that the current Chinese Gaokao system has certain unequal issues and the Provincial Quotas Policy (PQP) might be one of the factors that influence the inequality. After conducting both qualitative and quantitative analysis, it is believed that the PQP for each province does not align proportionally with the number of applicants and the population. However, as Liu (2015) argued, geographic stratification is observable not only in the divide between rural and urban locales but also in pronounced distinctions among various regions. In this essay, it is found that the PQP may be quite related to certain provinces’ economic, social and educational situations, and these situations may mostly determine the geographic stratification in China. Hence, it can be inferred that, even certain complements, like the special admission schemes and the awarded points for minority candidates, have been implemented out of the PQP, if the issue of geographic stratification has not been solved, the educational inequality in China might exist for a durable time.

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[1] Data retrieved from https://baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1735164044229868973.

[2] Data retrieved from https://data.stats.gov.cn/easyquery.htm?cn=E0103&zb=A0M05&reg=520000&sj=2021

[3] Data retrieved from https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/XVSrswv8wRx9hPS6U9JbIA

[4] Data retrieved from https://mp.weixin.qq.com/s/4zI1TO9p9W_xTyAH4c8cFg