Men’s Experiences of Gender Based Violence in Selected Compounds of Lusaka Urban

Kalisto Kalimaposo¹, Maybin Mukando², Inonge Milupi³, Kaiko Mubita⁴, Farrelli Hambulo⁵                      

^1,2,3,4,5 University of Zambia, School of Education.

ABSTRACT: The study investigated men’s experiences of Gender Based Violence in selected compounds of Lusaka Urban. The study adopted an interpretivist perspective which seeks to understand participants’ lived experiences of Gender based Violence. The study was conducted in two compounds of Lusaka Urban. The study sites were chosen because of their high prevalence of Gender Based Violence as reported on social media. The study was premised on the following research objectives; to determine the nature of Gender Based Violence against men, to explore the factors that lead to Gender Based Violence against men and to investigate men’s reactions in the face of Gender Based Violence. The study sample consisted of fourty-six (46) participants, thirty four (34) of whom were men from both Garden and Matero Compounds, four (4) representatives from the Zambia Police Victim Support Unit and eight (8) Church leaders. Purposive and convenient sampling techniques were used. The findings of the study revealed that among the forms of Gender Based Violence perpetrated against men were emotional abuse, sexual abuse, physical assault, financial abuse and verbal abuse. Other factors that led to Gender Based Violence against men were failure of a man to provide for family needs especially after change of economic status, alcohol abuse, retaliation to past mistreatment of wives by husbands, adultery and psychological disorders. Regarding men’s reactions in the face of Gender Based Violence, the study showed that few men reported cases of Gender Based Violence against them. This was attributed to the fact that men faced barriers such as societal view of battered men, police attitudes towards battered men and being ignored by the law enforcement bodies.

KEYWORDS: Gender Based Violence, verbal violence, physical assault, alcohol abuse, financial abuse

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

The phenomenon of Gender Based Violence (GBV) is a common problem in many countries today, and has seen an upswing in the recent past both in Zambia and the world over. According to the World Bank (2018), 35 percent of women worldwide have experienced either physical or sexual intimate partner violence.

The case of Gender Based Violence has historically been understood to happen largely, if not only, to women, allegedly because of the differentiation of roles between men and women which has existed since time in memorial. On the basis of the nature of the roles, society started to perceive men’s roles as being superior to those of women and as such the status of men was given a superior position that resulted in power imbalances and consequently abuse (Sampa, 1994). Even though it is more pronounced in women, Gender Based Violence has for a long time been as detrimental to the wellbeing of men as it is to that of women. As seen, for a long time and for some reasons, Gender Based Violence against men was ignored and not considered as a violation of men’s fundamental rights.

The annual survey recently released by the Victim Support Unit (VSU) of the Zambia Police Service revealed that in 2020, the country recorded 18,540 cases as compared to 18,088 cases recorded in the previous year, showing an increase of 452 cases of GBV (VSU Annual Survey, 2020). These statistics imply that barely a day passes without the Zambian communities witnessing about fifty cases of GBV.  Furthermore, the current Zambia Demographic and Health Survey  (ZDHS, 2020) indicates that 9% of women induced violence on their spouses, which entails that not only women have been victims of Gender Based Violence, men too have had their own experiences. Reporting of Gender Based Violence against men has been infrequent due to the embarrassment that the victim would go through and the assault to masculinity that comes with such incidences. Therefore, the fact that Gender Based Violence against men remains largely unreported suggests that the number of such cases is higher than what the statistics have indicated.

Over the years, Zambia has demonstrated its commitment and political will to suppress gender based violence at various levels. At the international level, Zambia has signed and ratified all the major international instruments and is a signatory to the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights (ACHPR) (Jere, 2013). At national level, the condemning of various acts which cause physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women and children is enshrined in the Republican Constitution. Zambia has also established various institutions which include, Gender in Development Division GIDD which was later transformed into Gender and Child Development Division (GCDD). In the year 2012, the Republican President of Zambia Mr. Michael Chilufya Sata turned GCDD into a full ministry. Other bodies formed include the Gender Forum, the Permanent Human Rights Commission (PHRC), and the Victim Support Unit. In March 2000, the Government of the Republic of Zambia adopted the National Gender Policy (NGP), which among other things, outlines a number of measures to combat violence against women (GIDD, 2000).

Besides the unparalleled efforts of the government of the Republic of Zambia, one of the most important milestones in the fight against gender based violence and issues of gender equity and equality in Zambia was the establishment of the Non-Governmental Organizations Coordinating Council NGOCC in 1985 by Zambian women. This has seen the mushrooming of other Non-governmental organisations whose goals are to mitigate the escalating gender based violence cases in the country, most particularly against women. However, despite numerous efforts that have been made by the government of the Republic of Zambia and its relevant stakeholders to protect victims of Gender Based Violence and police having made some reforms in responding to this vice, the number of domestic assault has continued to escalate and Gender Based Violence remains a serious issue up to date. And as noticed, all measures taken to fight Gender Based Violence are focused on women as the only victims and men as the only perpetrators.

1.2 Statement of the problem

Men just like women are equal victims of gender based violence in the world today. Gender Based Violence against men is largely invisible, under theorized and under-noticed.  If an abused man seeks help as a victim of domestic violence, the majority of society is most likely to treat it as a laughable situation. Society, due to its cultural base, chooses not to believe that a man can be molested by a woman. This brings a feeling of shame in the male victims who are mostly overlooked and marginalized in this regard. The way in which society looks at gender images of men and women are passed down from one generation to the next. This, in its reality, has had a severe negative effect on the lives of male victims of gender based violence in our society. Currently, female victims of gender based violence are increasingly treated with sympathy and receive support by society, while male victims are mostly treated with disbelief and disdain.

Societal views on domestic violence has been reinforced by the media’s coverage of the issues surrounding gender based violence, portraying females as the only victims and males as the abusers. This kind of response by society is a major concern for men’s fundamental rights. Therefore, there is need to take more comprehensive steps to raise awareness of the magnitude of this problem and effect policies that can lead to its eradication. Since the problem of Gender Based Violence has become so prominent in Zambia in the recent past and present day, substantial research has been carried out on this subject. However, little research has been conducted to investigate the experiences of men in the face of Gender Based Violence, since men are always regarded as perpetrators of the vice. In this regard, there are numerous gaps in understanding the pervasiveness of this act in terms of the forms, the causes, the reaction of men in defiance of gender based violence, and measures to mitigate this scourge and hence this study.

1.3 Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to investigate men’s experiences of Gender Based Violence in selected compounds of Lusaka Urban.

1.4 Objectives of the study

The specific objectives of the study were to:

1. Determine the nature of Gender Based Violence against men.
2. Explore the factors that lead to Gender Based Violence against men.
3. Investigate men’s reactions in the face of Gender Based Violence.

1.5 Theoretical Framework

The study was based on the liberal feminist theory. Theoretically, liberal feminism claims that gender differences are not based in biology, and therefore that women and men are not all that different their common humanity supersedes their procreative differentiation. If women and men are not different, then they should not be treated differently under the law. Women should have the same rights as men and the same educational and work opportunities. Within this context Liberal Feminist Theory can be explained as an individualistic form which concentrates on women having their equality through being responsible for their actions and choices (Brookes, 2008). On a similar note, Giddens (2001) defines liberal theory as a feminist theory that believes that gender inequality is produced by reduced access for women and girls to civil rights and allocation of social resources such as quality education and employment. From the definitions above, it can be noted that the liberal feminist theory acknowledges the existence of disparities in society that are gender related.

From another view, liberal feminism conceives of freedom and equal rights as personal autonomy living a life of one’s own choosing and political autonomy being co-author of the conditions under which one lives. Liberal feminists hold that the exercise of personal autonomy depends on certain enabling conditions that are insufficiently present in women’s lives. In the world today, social arrangements often fail to respect women’s personal autonomy and other elements that support the flourishing of women. According to Okin (1989), liberal feminists hold also that women’s needs and interests are insufficiently reflected in the basic conditions under which they live, and that those conditions lack legitimacy because women are inadequately represented in the processes of democratic self-determination. Liberal feminists hold that autonomy deficits like these are due to the existing gender systems.

The Liberal Feminist Theory is premised around a number of assumptions. These premises are based on the understanding that individual ignorance has contributed to gender prejudice. In order to address this prejudice the affected individual has to take action. Education is therefore seen as a variable that can be used to improve the situation. Liberal feminists are also concerned with equal rights and freedom of the individual. Gender disparities are therefore attributed to a number of factors. Such factors include culture and the way men and women are socialized within that culture. The other factors are closely related to the attitudes of the individual. All these can be changed through empowerment and education. In essence, liberal feminism is for gradual reforms through advocacy for equal rights for all, and laws and policies that promote equality.

Gender analysts have identified the concepts ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ as central to a hierarchal system in which masculinities are privileged over femininities. Feminists highlight how uneven gender relations marginalize women by privileging the structural position of men (Connell, 1995). The term patriarchy has been and continues to be used to describe this system of gender domination. The “unequal power relations between men and women are manifested in social practice and in beliefs and values that promote male superiority and female inferiority” and thus form the underlying causes of domestic violence (Pillay, 2001). Therefore, in this study, men’s experiences of gender based violence resulting from gender disparities and unequal power relations among men from selected compounds of Lusaka district are investigated.

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Global Historical View

Bloom (2008) defines Gender Based Violence (GBV) as a general term used to capture violence that occurs as a result of the normative role expectations associated with each gender, along with the unequal power relationships between the two genders within the context of a specific society. It is a pattern of behaviour which involves the abuse by one partner against another in an intimate relationship such as marriage, cohabitation, dating or within the family. GBV can take many forms, including physical aggression or assault, or threats thereof; sexual abuse; emotional abuse; controlling or domineering; intimidation and many more. GBV is therefore a mix of physical and coercive behaviour designed to manipulate and dominate another competent adult, to achieve compliance and dependence. It is acknowledged as a violation of human rights and a constraint to development throughout the world according to the World Health Organisation (WHO) (1999). It affects women and men, girls and boys of all ages in different ways. Furthermore, GBV is a serious social problem that cuts across nations, cultures, religion, and class.

Laws on gender based violence vary by country. While it is generally outlawed in the Western World, this is not the case in many developing countries. For instance, in 2010, the United Arab Emirates’ Supreme Court ruled that a man has the right to physically discipline his wife and children as long as he does not leave physical marks (Adebayo, 2014). The social acceptability of gender based violence also differs by country. While in most developed countries gender based violence is considered unacceptable by most people, in many regions of the world the views are different. According to a UNICEF survey (2016), the percentage of women aged 15–49 who think that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife under certain circumstances is, for example: 90 percent in Afghanistan and Jordan, 87 percent in Mali, 86 percent in Guinea and Timor-Leste, 81 percent in Laos, 80 percent in Central African Republic. Refusing to submit to a husband’s wishes is a common reason given for justification of violence in developing countries. For instance, 62.4 percent of women in Tajikistan justify wife beating if the wife goes out without telling the husband and 68 percent if she argues with him; 47.9 percent if she refuses to have sex with him. In another survey, 80 percent of women in rural Egypt said that beatings were common and often justified, particularly if the woman refused to have sex with her husband.

Domestic Violence has been a serious problem in most societies throughout history. Physical violence in particular is very common among intimate partners in both developed and developing countries. While women, girls, men and boys can be victims of GBV, the main focus is mostly on violence against women and girls. This is not to say that Gender Based Violence against men does not exist. Gender based violence against men is a term describing violence that is committed against men by the man’s intimate partner (Sugg et al., 1999). Even though there have been so much hues and cries about gender based violence against women across the globe, domestic violence against men is a reality. It occurs virtually in every society in varying degrees.

Historically, gender based violence against men has always been the most controversial subject in the field of domestic violence (Carney et al., 2006). Literature shows that domestic violence against women is a norm, while violence against men is not only regarded as an exception but almost non-existence (Musune, 2015). This kind of conceptualization of domestic violence has historical underpinnings. From medieval times, within patriarchal societies, it has been considered a “great taboo” for a man to be a victim of violence initiated by a woman. George (2004) who argues that this was due to the coalescence of two forbidden beliefs in society. First, that a man can be beaten by a woman, which is an anathema particularly to men while second, that the uncomfortable reality that women can be aggressive and violent, which contravenes stereotypical notions of femininity and is an attribution that neither men nor women wish to acknowledge.

It is for this reason that, historically in France and England, society ridiculed and humiliated husbands thought to be battered or dominated by their wives (Steinmetz, 1977). Such treatments for these husbands have been attributed to their perceived inability to live up to the male-orientated patriarchal ethos in society, which persisted well into the twentieth century (Pleck, 1987). Coltrane (1998) adds that the maintenance of a gendered patriarchal framework in society is premised on the unequal distribution of power and resources between people, particularly men and women. In terms of partner abuse, such power inequalities are seen to be maintained in and through gender stereotypes of the man as aggressive and dominant and the woman as passive and submissive (Dobash and Dobash, 2002). This view point is complemented by George (2004) when he argues that the history of domestic violence is linked to the patriarchal ideas of men always being the perpetrators owing to the fact that earlier periods, women had fewer rights than men and were subordinate to them in the home.

Gross (2002) recorded that a battered husband has historically been ignored or subjected to ridicule and abuse as was the case in France in 18th century where a battered husband was made to wear an outlandish outfit and ride backwards around the village on a donkey. Generally, researchers do not investigate about husband abuse because it is thought to be a fairly rare occurrence and in most traditions men are seen as sturdy and self-reliant so that the issue of male abuse is considered irrelevant (2002). However, surveys from police records in the United States have shown male abuse as a reality. For example, in a police report from New Jersey, between 1976 and 1985, it was found that there was 57 percent and 43 percent of murdered wives and murdered husbands respectively (Johnson, 2005). In this report, it was also recorded that black husbands are at greater risk of spouse homicide and victimisation than white husbands.

In Africa, some men have abandoned their families because their women have become tormentors in verbal and physical abuse. Some of these men drown their frustrations in bars, while others take hard drugs (Barnes, 1999). Frustrations are even more for the jobless, retrenched, and men who earn less than their spouses because their homes turn into prisons (Segal, 1997). The problem in conducting studies that seek to describe violence in terms of gender is the amount of silence, fear and shame that results from abuse within families and relationships. This is why domestic violence against men remains largely unreported. Gender differences in reporting violence have been cited as another explanation for mixed results. According to a 2004 survey in Canada, the percentages of males being physically or sexually victimized by their partners was 6 percent versus 7 percent for women. However, females reported higher levels of repeated violence and were more likely than men to experience serious injuries; 23 percent of females versus 15 percent of males were faced with the most serious forms of violence including being beaten, choked, or threatened with or having a gun or knife used against them.

GBV against men has been on steady increase in Kenya and its assuming a worrisome dimension. It has been reported that in 2011, almost five hundred thousand men were beaten by their wives in Kenya (Onwumere, 2012). The rising cases of husband battery is blamed on increasing “female superiority complex”. According to Robert (2012), the BBC reported that a men’s group in Kenya named Maendeleo Ya Wanaume (“Progress for Men”) announced an initiative to protest what is becoming a growing problem of female perpetrated domestic abuse in that country. The protest would entail a nationwide boycott of meals made by their wives and partners and was supposed to encourage men to eat away from home together and share their experiences with domestic abuse whether physical or emotional. In Kenyan culture, eating your wife’s meal is said to be a very important part of a man’s expression of appreciation for his wife. In 2013, the group conducted its own survey of Central and Nairobi provinces and found that up to 460,000 men said they had been subjected to some sort of domestic abuse (Adebayo, 2014). Furthermore, many men have also been killed by their female partners, just as many women have been killed by male partners.

2.2 Gender Based Violence against men: The Zambian experience.

The Zambian society is a highly patriarchal one, in which men have bloated egos. Though there is a prevalence of domestic violence against women in Zambia, as many women have died, brutalised or maimed for life by their violent male counterparts, there is also a prevalence of domestic violence against men, which has largely remained under-reported. According to Watts and Zimmermann (2002), the under-reporting of domestic violence is almost universal and may be due to the sensitive nature of the subject. Husband punching, slapping, kicking, nail scratching, sex deprivation and killing are realities that occur in Zambia. The great tragedy is that men who find themselves in this situation hide and do not talk openly about their experience, as talking about it would bruise their ego and expose them to ridicule in a patriarchal society.

The annual survey recently released by the Victim Support Unit (VSU) of the Zambia Police Service revealed that in 2016, the country recorded 18,540 cases as compared to 18,088 cases recorded in the previous year of 2015, showing an increase of 452 cases of GBV (VSU Annual Survey, 2017). These statistics imply that barely a day passes without the Zambian communities witnessing about fifty cases of GBV.  Furthermore, the current Zambia Demographic and Health Survey 2013-14 (ZDHS, 2015) indicates that 9% of women induced violence on their spouses, which entails that not only women have been victims of Gender Based Violence, men too have had their own experiences.

In Zambia, a similar global pattern about the scarcity of literature on female domestic violence against men exists. Even if it is clear that gender based violence has been an endemic problem and that it manifests in many ways such as spouse battering, property grabbing, rape, incest, defilement and sexual harassment (National Gender Policy, 2000), it is only literature on male initiated violence which utmost exists (Chirwa, Ng’andu and Kalimaposo, 2016). The Zambia Demographic and Health Survey (ZDHS 2013-2014) which is probably the most comprehensive survey in Zambia, indicates that 9 percent of women reported that they had initiated physical violence against their husbands and 5 percent had done so in the past twelve months. Female domestic violence against a husband who got drunk was at 19 percent and 20 percent of the women were violent to the spouse as a way of self-defense.

The National Plan of Action on GBV (2010-2014) provided for domestic violence against men to be recognised as a fundamental violation of human rights. In order to avoid responses that focus initiatives on women and girls as victims, it is essential to look at gender relations between men and women and boys and girls so as to address the notion that exists that men are the only perpetuators of violence and women are the only victims. Furthermore, it recommends that the Zambian government should adopt the above mentioned approach so that policy makers can begin to change to include men as victims of GBV too (Musune, 2015).

2.3 Factors that lead to Gender Based Violence against men

There is no one single factor to account for domestic violence. Increasingly, research has focused on the inter-relatedness of various factors that should improve our understanding of the problem within different cultural contexts (United Nations Development Fund for Women, 1997). There exists no literature that outlines the causes of gender based violence against men. Most of the literature especially those which have  feminist connotations suggest that women only engage in violence in self-defense, fear or retribution for perceived wrong doing of their male counterparts (Barnett et al., 1997).  Often listed is self-defense as a motivation for committing gender based violence. In an analysis of women’s motivations for violence by Swan and Snow (2003), self-defense was the most frequently endorsed motive, with 75 percent of participants stating that they had used violence to defend themselves. The same study provides some evidence that women often used violence to get even with their partners for something they had done against them. In terms of fear, Archer (2000) indicates that some women’s violence occurs in the context of fear of assault from their partners and the need to protect themselves from physical harm.

It is further argued that in the 1980s “the construction of the victimised woman” drew attention to women’s experiences in violent intimate relationships thereby highlighting intimate partner violence as a major social problem. Women’s victimization by their partners has been shown to be the primary etiological factor in their perpetration of lethal and non-lethal violence. To this end, it can be argued that women who initiate violence against men are playing the masculine gender role (Musune, 2015).

However, some scholars have refuted the above hypotheses and tagged them, a feminist way of denying the phenomenon of women as perpetrators of violence. Fiebert (1997) is perhaps the fiercest critic of the self-defense hypothesis. He argues that data does not support such a hypothesis, instead, they posit that there are three reasons found from empirical studies why female violence against men exists; which is to resolve an argument; to respond to family crisis; and to stop men from bothering them.

It is evident from the literature that power is a common theme in all forms of gender based violence (McKeown and Kidd, 2002). Relationships in which a woman is dominant are at higher risk of domestic violence than more democratic, egalitarian relationships.  Victims of domestic violence invariably experience powerlessness but perpetrators can also act out of a similar sense of powerlessness.  Power can have a personality dimension but it almost invariably has an economic dimension and male victims are usually in a weak economic position within the relationship.   Power also has a physical dimension in that people with a physical disability are more vulnerable than those without (McKeown and Kidd, 2002). On the other hand, abusive family backgrounds are also a contributory factor in the perpetration of domestic violence. Domestic violence is also associated with lower socio-economic status but of course it can be found in all social classes and is confined to a minority within every social class. These findings suggest that no one theory or paradigm can properly explain domestic violence.  However, there is sufficient evidence to suggest that domestic violence is essentially a learned behaviour and therein lies the hope that what is learned can be unlearned (McKeown and Kidd, 2002).

The other possible cause of female domestic violence which was proposed by McKeown and Kidd (2002) is that of masculinisation. The concept entails that females are capable of taking on a more masculine role in society and this makes them perform gender roles typical for men. Such women are able to enact controlling behavior on other people including men. This is similar to the concept of performativity as coined by Judith Butler which she uses to deny the existence of rigid and natural gender roles in society (Butler, 1999). Both concepts postulate that people choose to either perform masculine or feminine gender roles depending on their social environment (Lubanze, Kalimaposo, Milupi and Mubita, 2022).  It is significant that in profiling the type of women who commit domestic violence, the literature often concludes that masculine traits can be identified. Comack and Brickey (2007) put it clearly that the construction of the masculinized woman provides a plausible explanation for her acts and in this way the masculine-feminine binary is maintained while violence and aggression remain within the masculine realm.

Furthermore, Felson (1998) argues for what he calls an opportunity based crime as another motivation for female perpetrated violence. Although this concept was not originally meant for female-induced violence, it can thus be applicable. He argues that offenders “typically behave like criminals only in certain settings, that is, slices of time and space within which relevant people and things are assembled”. In this case, whenever females engage in violence against their male counterparts, it means they have usurped that behavior only in conducive and specific circumstances and such are not meant to be sustainable (Musune, 2015).

Robertson and Murachver (2009) have pointed to the emotional imbalance manifested in all perpetrators of violence and they argue that female perpetrators are not an exception in this regard. They hold that perpetrators of both sexes often have emotional control problems and a related inability to communicate while talking through issues in homes.  They also argue that many perpetrators were victims of domestic violence themselves previously, this could be when they were growing up as children.

A violence prone woman is a woman who, while complaining that she is the innocent victim of the malice and aggression of all other relationships in her life, is in fact a victim of her own violence and aggression. Pizzey (1998) provides considerable evidence that such individuals form an addiction to violence early in life such as abused as a child. A woman who was physically or sexually abused as a child is a likely candidate to be abusive as an adult. She will also know all the games to play, just who to call, and what to say when the abuse begins. A woman’s partner can no longer do anything right. What had seemed like a caring, loving person becomes an abusive, angry harpy who is critical of every action a man takes.

According to Pizzey (1998), another cause of gender based violence against men is alcohol and drug abuse. Women with drug or alcohol problems or those who abuse prescription drugs, particularly anti-depressants, or even over-the-counter medications, can exhibit aggressive reactions. Such habits often hide deeper-seated psychoses as well and the rate of recidivism is very high in such cases.

2.4 Men’s reactions in the face of Gender Based Violence

Men react to gender based violence differently depending on the society they live in, severity of the violence and their tolerance to violence. Very few men report gender based violence against them, especially in African societies. Wiehe (1998) argues that the number of reported cases of domestic violence against men is only a fraction of its actual occurrence within society. Cook (2009) puts forward the argument from his study on domestic violence, that one of the main reasons for men not reporting the abuse and remaining within the relationship could be known as internal excuses. In other words, putting off reporting or leaving their abuser because of the belief that with time things would change.  Denial prolongs the under-reporting of domestic violence by male victims.

The other reason why abused men do not report gender based violence is because of the view that society has on battered men (Robertson and Murachver, 2009). If an abused man seeks help as a victim of domestic violence, the majority of society will treat it as a laughable situation. Society, due to its cultural base, chooses not to believe and would rather tease the man. This brings a feeling of shame in the male victims who are mostly overlooked and marginalized in this regard. The way in which society looks at gender images of men and women are passed down from one generation to the next. This, in its reality, has had a severe negative effect on the lives of male victims of gender based violence in our society. Currently, female victims of gender based violence are increasingly treated with sympathy and support by society, while male victims are mostly treated with disbelief. Naturally, men are stronger than women, but that does not necessarily make it easier for them to have their way all the time. The problem is that the man who suffers domestic violence is hardly given a listening ear. He is first of all assumed to be the aggressor even if he has bruises all over him. An abused man faces a shortage of resources, skepticism from the police and other major legal obstacles especially when it comes to gaining custody of his children from an abusive mother (Robertson and Murachver, 2009).

Gender based violence affects men’s human rights in fundamental ways that present a serious challenge to realising men’s rights as citizens and realising their agency to fully participate in public and in private life.  Most men, in the face of female violence, incur considerable social and economic costs to men such as personal insecurity, lost income, and productivity. Wiehe (1998) held the view that being the victim of domestic abuse was destructive to one’s self-esteem and self-image. The reaction of a battered man is most likely to be a psychologically broken man; the male being sexually abused by a female was usually a very vulnerable personality who felt absolute shame and worthlessness.

Barnett (2001) brings out other long term effects on men who have been abused. These are guilt, anger, depression or anxiety, shyness, nightmares, disruptiveness, irritability, and problems getting along with others. An overwhelming lack of resources by a victim of gender based violence can also lead to homelessness and poverty. Musune (2015) adds that men who have suffered abuse are at risk of a lot of negative consequences that can put them on a destructive path for their future as their life is usually shattered.

On the other hand, Domestic violence is a complex problem and there is no one strategy that will work in all situations (World Bank, 2018). Violence may take place within very different societal contexts, and the degree to which a community sanctions it will naturally influence the kind of strategy needed. Due to the dynamism of factors responsible for domestic violence, strategies and interventions, which have been adopted by different communities, are also diverse.

In management of gender based domestic violence, it is certainly important to have both men and women address the issue and to take some responsibility for changing the social norms and values that allow this gross violation of human rights to go on unquestioned (Wiehe, 1998). However, at the same time it is necessary to critically assess the approaches being used, and to ensure that resources to address the issue are allocated in the most effective way and are not diverted from the hard-won program efforts of many Anti gender based violence organizations. Over the last twenty years, it has been these organizations that have provided basic care and support to men and women experiencing violence, and increasingly work on prevention and even programs for batterers (Kaluyu, 2007).

However, the most common management strategy so far for men has been batterer intervention programmes (BIPs) in the United States. Batterer intervention programmes (BIPs) aim to change the behavior of batterers. BIPs have often not been systematically monitored and evaluated, limiting the knowledge about the effectiveness of these interventions. Furthermore, the evaluations that do exist have focused on the reduction of violence rates as reported by batterers themselves and at times confirmation by their spouses, but have not considered the well-being and safety of men, or whether they are empowered or disempowered by such interventions (Austin & Dankwort, 1999).

Hoffman et al. (1994) reveal that the justice system such as police and courts, the health care system, parliament, provincial legislative bodies, and the education sector have been useful in attending to issues of domestic violence. Also at the international level, United Nations agencies, the World Bank and regional development banks have not been left behind in resolving domestic violence. Over the years, there have been key intervention areas adopted by these organisations or groups depending on the context of arising domestic problems. According to WHO (1999), these include advocacy and awareness raising, direct service provision to victim survivors, legal reforms, networking and community mobilization.

Effective legislations to curb domestic violence against men must be put in place and enforced. Law enforcement agents should also accept that husband battering and other forms of domestic violence against men is a reality, from which men are to be protected (Adebayo, 2014). The brutality of a man by his wife should not be seen as a trivial domestic matter. The trials of women who batter or kill their husbands must be given wide publicity in order to serve as deterrence to others who may have such tendencies. There should be greater advocacy to enlighten the public about the existence and reality of the evil of domestic violence against men by government agencies, religious groups and civil rights organizations. This will help in balancing the gender discourse on domestic violence and bring about better families in the society (Adebayo, 2014)

The situation therefore entails that there is urgent need to address the problem.  Workable strategies need to be arrived at, otherwise efforts that have gone in public awareness campaigns to sensitize men on the need to report cases of gender based violence against men will be in vain. It is therefore the purpose of this research to investigate actual men’s experiences of Gender Based Violence in selected compounds of Lusaka Urban.

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research design

This study adopted an interpretivist perspective which seeks to understand participants’ subjective experiences of their world view. The study relied as much as possible on the participants’ view of their situation based on the understanding that reality is socially constructed (Creswell, 2016).  In terms of design, this study was exploratory in nature. It is exploratory in the sense that it sought to elicit information from participants whose life experiences appears to have been shrouded in secrecy.

3.2 Research sites

The study was conducted in Garden and Matero compounds of Lusaka urban. The sites were chosen because of the high prevalence of GBV as reported on social media.

3.3 Population

The target population consisted of men from both Garden and Matero compounds, representatives from Anti GBV group NGOCC, Young Women Christian Association (YMCA), Ministry of Gender, Ministry of Religious Affairs, Zambia Police Victim Support Unit and Church Leaders.

3.4 Sample size

The study sample consisted of fourty-six (46) respondents, thirty four (34) of whom were men from both Garden and Matero Compounds, four (4) representatives from the Zambia Police Victim Support Unit and eight (8) Church leaders.

3.5 Sampling procedure

The sampling techniques employed in this study were convenient and purposive sampling techniques. Convenient sampling is a technique that selects respondents in view of availability and willingness to participate in the study. In this study the male victims of gender based violence were conveniently selected for interviews.  Purposive sampling was used as participants were selected based on some pre-defined characteristics (Maree, 2010). The key informants were purposively selected as they were deemed to be the holders of information on gender based violence against men.

3.6 Research Instruments

Kothari (2011) defines a research instrument as a tool or device chosen by the researcher to collect the required information. One research instrument was used to collect qualitative data for the study. This is a semi-structured interview guide. The researchers focused on gaining insights into the experiences of the victims of gender based violence. This method was used because there was need for more specific and detailed information in order to facilitate comparison of the reactions of different participants.

3.7 Data Analysis

According to Kombo and Tromp (2006) data analysis is the stage when the researcher interprets the information collected from the respondents. This information is systematically presented. The information is coded and presented in order to help readers and the researcher to easily discuss the findings.

This study used thematic analysis to analyze qualitative data. Major themes were drawn from the interviews with participants. Descriptions of thematic areas was analyzed and interpreted critically.

3.8 Ethical Consideration

Ethical clearance procedures were followed and participants were informed of the voluntary nature of the study, the anonymity of their responses and the purpose of the study. The researchers sought ethical clearance from the University of Zambia, Humanities and Social Sciences Ethical Committee. All participants in the study were required to sign a consent form after being briefed on the purpose of the study. All participants were notified that participation in the study would be on voluntary basis and confidentiality and anonymity would be observed.

PRESENTATION OF FINDINGS

4.0 The findings are presented under the headings determined by the research objectives. The results obtained for each of the objectives and their corresponding questions that were investigated are presented separately. The findings presented were based on the interviews with the participants conducted by the researcher. The study sought to find answers to the following questions:

1. What is the nature of Gender Based Violence against men?
2. What are the factors that lead to Gender Based Violence against men?
3. What are men’s reactions in the face of Gender Based Violence?

The above listed questions were investigated introspectively and by the utilization of 46 informants, thirty four (34) of whom were men from both Garden and Matero Compounds, four (4) representatives from the Zambia Police Victim Support Unit and eight (8) Church leaders. Semi-structured interviews were conducted on each informant which was later analysed.

4.1 Characteristics of men respondents

This section presents the background characteristics of men in the study. The information men include age, marital status and professional status. The researcher has explained why this information was relevant for this study in chapter five.

1. Age

The table 4.1 shows the distribution of men according to their age groups:

Table 4.1 Distribution of Men by age group

1. Marital Status

The table 4.2 shows the distribution of men according to their age groups:

Table 4.2 Distribution of Men by marital status

1. Marital Status

The table 4.3 shows the distribution of men according to their professional status:

Table 4.3 Distribution of Men by professional status

4.2 Nature of Gender Based Violence against men

According to the study, it was revealed that there were various forms of Gender Based Violence perpetrated by females of which men had fallen victim. Among the reported forms of GBV is psychological violence, physical assault, financial abuse and verbal abuse. Below is the discrete analysis of the findings regarding the nature of GBV against men.

4.2.1 Psychological Abuse

Psychological abuse against the respondents of the study included coercion, defamation, harassment, mental torture, threats, intimidation, humiliation, manipulation and isolation. The findings of the study revealed that psychological abuse was one of the most common forms of GBV perpetrated by females. A 32 year old participant who was on separation with his wife had this to say regarding the forms of GBV that are experienced by men:

For me I experienced more of mental torture inflicted on me by my own wife. While every day I tried to make her understand how I felt in the face of mental torture, she could not change. Apart from that I was humiliated various times by her in front of our own children. Then I thought it was too much to bare, I reported the issue to the elders of our family and we have now being put on separation.

When asked about the forms of GBV perpetrated by females on men, a 40 year old man who has been married for 6 years had this to say:

I have been married for six years now and our marriage has always faced problems right from the beginning. I am a man who has been abused psychologically in all ways, and I have lost all hope of fixing my marriage. I can mention a number of things that my wife has done to me. These include unthoughtful humiliation, mental torture, threats and depravity of the basic conjugal rights of a married man. There was one time she went on day after day threatening to stop me from having any more children after we had agreed on the number of children we wanted to have. I lived my life obeying her since I couldn’t stand the threats.

Another man who had been divorced for two years had this to say after being asked on the forms of GBV that he had experienced.

A lot happened that led us to finally decide to divorce. From the start, divorce was never in my books but I just couldn’t bear the attitude of my wife towards me. Especially that we have three children who needed us both, I thought it would have been better for them to be raised by both parents. It all started when I noticed my wife’s attitude change when I couldn’t manage to provide all that the family needed. I faced all kinds of humiliation, sometimes even in front of people. That was an insult to my manhood and in our culture it cannot be tolerated. I stayed with her, bearing her abuse, just because of my children. Now when it was too much to take I had to come out of it. Even though I did not think it was a good idea to divorce, looking at how our children would grow up, I feel better now being separated from her.

When asked the forms of GBV that are reported at the Victim Support Unit, an official from the Unit had this to say:

Here we receive a number of cases of GBV against both men and women. Even though GBV against women is more common, we still receive quite a number of cases of female perpetrated GBV and we treat it with the urgency and gravity that it needs. Among the reported forms of GBV against men is psychological violence which involves someone using threats and causes fear in a person to gain control. We have received a number of cases where the wife has threatened the husband on something that she knows would make him weak and gain control of his emotions.

Since the Church is one of the institutions where issues of GBV are reported and addressed, eight respondents from the Church where asked on the forms of GBV against men that are largely reported and addressed at Church. A 38 year old respondent who is an elder in charge of counselling had this to say:

The Church is a home for the broken. Here they find the comfort and the counsel that they need. I, as an elder in charge of counselling, have encountered a lot of issues concerning GBV and it is important for me to take it very seriously. Psychological violence has been on the rise, especially by females who think they cannot manage to use physical violence. In many cases, men have been victimized psychologically through threats and manipulation. We, as a Church, do not teach manipulation in couple’s pre-marital counselling. We teach them how love does not instill fear in the other. Therefore, when we are faced with such issues, we take the couple to the foundations of their marriage. Some adhere to the counsel and have enjoyed their marriage while others have continued coming back and forth.

4.2.2 Physical assault

In terms of physical assault, a number of forms were revealed. Some forms of physical violence against men indicated by respondents includes hitting, burning, slapping, biting and assault with a weapon or an object. The findings also revealed that physical assault was one of the major forms of GBV as reported by various respondents. A 37 year old married man had this to say concerning the forms of GBV he had experienced:

My wife and I have had good times and the bad times in our marriage. Even though we have not had the bad moments frequently I can still recount times when she inflicted me with pain through physical violence. While it was hard for me to retaliate, it could not take away the fact that my manhood was disrespected. Due to the problem of anger management she could hit me with whatever she had in her hands when she snapped. In other times, she slapped me.

When asked on the forms of GBV experienced by men, another 37 year old man who was divorced at the time had this to say:

Our marriage was okay until we started having problems which eventually made us to have physical confrontations. My ex-wife could use different objects to hit me with. At one time she used a wooden plank to hit me and I sustained bruises on my leg. After I could not take it anymore I presented my case to the church where help and counselling was offered but she could not change. Various times I was hit until I decided to go separate ways with her. This happened when through the panel of elders, we were separated to avoid worse outcomes of her violent behavior. I cannot wish what I went through in the hands of that woman to happen to anyone else.

A representative from the Victim Support Unit had this to say regarding the forms of GBV that are reported at the unit:

Our unit is a very busy unit. We barely spend a day without noting an issue to do with domestic violence. While GBV happens mostly to women, we have been recording a number of cases where men have been victims. Most of those cases of GBV against men have to do with physical assault. Although mostly the causes of GBV through physical assault is rarely investigated, men have faced it. The most common form of physical assault that is reported is hitting with an object or weapon.

4.2.3 Financial Abuse

Financial abuse was also revealed as one of the forms of GBV indicated by participants. Financial abuse which involves one intimate partner having control over the other partner’s access to economic resources or preventing a cohabitant from resource acquisition. Most of the men who had less income to support their families experienced financial abuse. Among the respondents, a 28 year old married man who was unemployed at the time had this to say:

Our marriage had no problems when I was working and taking money home to support my family. After I lost my job it has been difficult for me to please my wife. Since she is now the only one who has a stable income for us to survive on, am deprived of a number of things which I need as a man. Due to my situation, my wife can say anything bad about me just to remind me that am not assuming the role of a man at the moment. I have decided to stick with her out of love and believing that one day I will be able to start providing for my family.

4.2.4 Verbal abuse

Verbal abuse, which is an act of criticizing, insulting and denouncing another person, has been reported as being one of the forms of GBV. Verbal abuse is a destructive force that a number of men indicated having experienced it. A 45 year old man had this to say:

I have lived almost all my marriage life being subjected to various kinds of verbal abuse. There are times when my wife has said something with the intention to hurt me. Verbal abuse is very common amongst men. Seeing that most women would not raise a hand against their partners, they resort to using destructives words towards their partners. Especially in cases where I, as a man has failed to provide what is needed at home, my wife always says I need to be man up. I think no man would tolerate such statements made against this manhood. Therefore, I agree that verbal abuse is also a significant for  GBV experienced by men at the hands of their female partners.

When asked if he had faced any form of GBV against men, a 31 year old recently married man had this to say:

I am a recently married man and we have enjoyed our first few months of our marriage with my wife. However, I cannot say I have never faced any form of GBV against me and perpetrated by my wife. Mostly, verbal abuse is the major form of GBV that I have experienced. My wife says things that have the capacity to hurt me and I just hope it will not become the order of the day in future. In as much as I appreciate that she seeks to express herself, many times she says things that destroy my manhood slowly.

4.3 Factors that lead to Gender Based Violence against men

According to the findings of this study, a number of factors were cited by participants as factors that lead to gender based violence against men. The general response as obtained from the participants is that failure to provide for family needs, alcohol abuse, retaliation to past mistreatment of their spouses, adultery and psychological disorders are the major causes of gender based violence against men.

4.3.1 Failure to provide for the family

Failure for a man to provide for the family was one of the factors listed as leading to gender based violence against men. Lack of employment and failure of businesses run by family men contributed to the high rates of gender based violence against men.

In cases where a man failed to provide for his family, mostly psychological abuse was used against men who could not provide for their families. A 32 year old participant who had experienced gender based violence at the hands of his wife had this to say:

For me I would say that mostly we get to face violence when we are not able to provide for our families. It is like as a man you only gain respect when you have having enough money to cater for all the needs of your family. When I was working, running a business and was able to provide everything that my family needed, my relationship with my wife was very stable, we rarely had any problems. Issues started coming when I lost my job and my business crumbled. I lost everything which I could not recover for a long time. So the patience of my wife was tested and she ended up giving up.

Since she was the only one able to work, the pressure on her grew that she thought I was doing totally nothing to help her. While I rose up every morning to look for better opportunities out there, she was getting tired that things were not changing. She then started disrespecting me and mistreating me in all ways. I experienced all sorts of gender based violence with her but like I said I strongly believe it all started when I could not provide for my family.

In the same vein, another participant, 28 years of age who has been married for 5 years had this to say concerning failure for a man to provide for the family arising from family financial problems as one of the major factors leading to gender based violence against men:

Failure for a man to provide for his family is a major contributor to gender based violence against men. Society has attached the ability to provide as one of the main characteristics of a real man, and therefore whoever cannot provide for his family is not respected. Sadly, disrespect is not only seen in the society but also right from the home where a man comes from. When a wife is able to provide for the family while a man, for whatever reason, is not able to provide, problems then start. When a man is belittled by his own wife, he feels less of a man and that is the point when some women take advantage and harm their spouses. I have also experienced gender based violence arising from my failure to provide for my family. Even though things have gotten back to normal over the years, we used to differ a number of times due to financial issues and it was at that time that my mate made me experience psychological violence.

4.3.2 Alcohol Abuse

Abuse of alcohol both on the side of men and on their spouses was revealed as one of the major factors leading to gender based violence. The findings of the study revealed that excessive intake of alcohol caused some women to exhibit violent behavior against their spouses and on the other hand, abuse of alcohol by men caused their spouses to discipline them by physically harming them.

When asked on the factors that lead to gender based violence against men, a church leader, who had held a number of counselling sessions with victims of gender based violence had this to say:

During our counselling sessions, we have encountered a number of factors as being the major causes of gender based violence and alcohol abuse in one. Alcohol has destroyed a lot people and families due to the evident results that we have kept on seeing among our church members. We have experienced cases where excessive intake of alcohol by a woman causes her to act violently towards everyone in the house, especially the husband. A number of cases reported to me through the counselling sessions always include intake of alcohol. Gender based violence is not only the result of women’s abuse of alcohol, also men’s excessive consumption of alcohol has equally caused many of them to be battered by their wives or spouses. This is also a common happening.

Another respondent, a representative from the Victim Support Unit (VSU), had this to say concerning alcohol abuse being one of the major causes of gender based violence against men:

We have for many years received a lot of cases of gender based violence and the rate at which gender based violence against men is rising is very alarming. But in both female and male perpetrated gender based violence, alcohol abuse is always one of the leading causes. In homes where a woman takes alcohol, we have had a lot of reported cases of violence. For some women, taking alcohol does not lead them to act violently but for some, it is their common behavior whenever they are under the influence of alcohol. Men who are drunkards have most of the time fallen victims of gender based violence at the hands of their spouses due to their irritating behaviors whenever they are drunk.

4.3.3 Retaliation to past mistreatment

According to the findings of the study, it was revealed that most women who were involved in gender based violence against men were doing it to retaliate against the past mistreatment and male dominance. The reacted violently as a way to revenge against the violence perpetrated by their partners. Some men revealed that they admitted that some violence that had befallen them was actually caused by their past treatment they gave to their wives as explained below:

For some of the treatment I receive from my wife, I know that I might be the cause. I used to beat up my wife in the past, which I know was a wrong way to correct her. I stopped doing so when I realized that it was causing more harm than good. But over the years, my wife has kept the hurt in her heart and as a way to retaliate against my past actions she usually hits me with objects whenever she is annoyed.  I have no doubt that she is doing so as revenge because she constantly mentions that the scars of the past are still working on her. We have visited a counsellor at church to help us with this issue. It stops for some time and later resurfaces [36 year old man, Garden Compound].

My wife always reminds me of the treatments I gave her in the past whenever she acts violently against me. It is true and I totally admit that I used to hit my partner sometime in the past but I decided to stop a long time ago. However, I still get to be hit by my partner because of the treatment I gave her [41 year old man, Matero Township].

I think revenge is the motive behind the violent treatment that men experience today. In the past, the cases of male perpetrated gender based violence were huge and we rarely heard of gender based violence against men. But is it different today with what we are seeing. The same women who used to be battered for a long time have now turned in revenge or rather retaliation against the past mistreatment. Sometimes, when we ask women what led to their violent behavior against their partners, their response is that their partners are also violent and so it was a way to retaliate against the past violence exhibited by their spouses and partners [Representative from VSU].

4.3.4 Perceived unfaithfulness

Responses from our respondents revealed that unfaithfulness or infidelity seems to be the major cause of gender based violence against men. The study brings to light the fact that some men experienced gender based violence due to suspicions of infidelity by their partners. Here are some of the responses as obtained from the respondents regarding perceived unfaithfulness being a cause of gender based violence where men have fallen as victims:

My wife hit me badly when she discovered that I was moving around with another woman. She got to discover when someone saw us and alerted her. She came to the place where I was with another woman and without asking any questions she knew there was an extra-marital affair. She then picked up a wooden plank near her and hit me with it. That was the first time she found me with another woman and ever since, she has never forgotten. So whenever she suspects any form of infidelity she reacts so violently [27 year old man, Garden Compound].

My wife got fed up of me receiving phone-calls from an unknown woman during the night. The worst is that I could not speak with the woman on phone in the presence of my wife so I used to move out of the bedroom. The suspicions grew bigger and when she asked who I was speaking to I always said that it was someone from work. One day I left my phone in the bedroom momentarily and she called, my wife picked and the woman on phone called me with an affectionate name not knowing it was my wife who had picked up the phone. I just came back and found my wife shouting at the woman and when I tried to intervene, she got so angry that she hit me badly with whatever object she came across [38 year old man, Garden compound].

Because of some problems we were having with my wife, I decided to seek comfort in another woman because she showed me a brighter side of life. So it happened that we were having an affair for a long while without my wife noticing. I thought it was all sorted out until one day I took a photo with her and forgot to delete it from my phone. While my wife tried to use my phone, she came across the photo and there was no need of evidence for her to conclude that there was something going on between me and the woman in picture. She initially never said anything and I did not know what she had seen. After a day or two she brought up the issue and I had no defense. She hit me with a broom stick continually till I bled. I did not want to retaliate because I have vowed never to hit a woman in my life. Thereafter, she tortured me mentally and deprived me of my conjugal rights in bed [30 year old man, Matero Township].

Another respondent who is a church leader had this to say regarding infidelity being one of the major causes of gender based violence against men:

Since time immemorial, infidelity has been a problem that most of us have found and will leave. It is a problem that is not only experience by people outside of the church but even those that are constantly found in our churches. It is one of the biggest problems that marriages are facing now and worse still, no one seems to have a solution to stop it. During our counselling sessions, infidelity has proven to be the major factor breaking marriages apart. Gender based violence mostly comes when there is a suspicion of infidelity by one spouse. Sometimes, extra-marital affairs may not even be there but that paranoia of what the other person might be doing behind their back is what lights up the violent person inside the women perpetrators of gender based violence.

4.3.5 Psychological disorders

Further findings of the study concerning factors that lead to gender based violence against revealed that psychological disorders of some women sometimes were at play. A representative from the Victim Support Unit had this to say:

We have encountered situations where the victim reports a case of domestic violence and upon investigation and medical histories, we get to discover that the woman has a mental disorder. Those are cases where a person periodically gets to have a mental disorder and hence turning very violent.

4.4 Men’s reactions in the face of Gender Based Violence

The researchers were also interested in knowing the reactions of men in the face of gender based violence. Generally, it was revealed that men tended to close themselves up whenever they got to be victims of gender based violence. In terms of reporting, some men respondents revealed that they did not report the cases of gender based violence against them to the police, church or their families.

Men respondents were asked to reveal whether they reported gender based violence cases against them to either the Police, the church or their families. The table 4.4 shows the distribution of men according to their reactions in terms of reporting gender based violence against them.

Table 4.4 Distribution of men according to their reactions in terms of reporting gender based violence against them.

The findings showed that 21 men participants representing 62% of the total number of men did not report their cases of violence against them to either the police, the church or their families. On the other hand, only 38% of the participants revealed having reported their cases to the police or  church.

When asked to reveal the reason why the participants did not report the cases of violence against them, it was revealed that it was due to fear of being victimized more when they reported. Some of the responses given by participants are outlined below:

We have seen how society always regards men as strong beings who cannot be broken, and so when they hear that you have been beaten by your wife, it is something that causes people to look down upon such a man. Even though society is wrong for looking at things that way, it is something that can never change as long as we people live on earth. So as men, we are victims of gender based violence but we fear to report because of how society will look at us [29 year old man, Matero Township].

The fear of being victimized or mocked more is what prevents me from reporting these cases to anyone. I have heard stories of how men go to the police to report and then the names that they are called by the police themselves, who are supposed to help, are not good. So upon hearing that I have determined within myself to just keep it to myself. I also do not report to the family because of the same reactions. They will think am less of a man and yet it is just that I do not want to retaliate and make the situation worse. To the church am not sure because I do not go to any church so I am not sure how they can react [39 year old man, Garden Compound].

I cannot report something that I know will make me be ridiculed by the society. I would rather just keep it to myself and bare the pain. The reactions of the people that we report to are the ones that most of the time discourage us from doing so. Most of the time we are not even attended to when we need help. We are ignored by the same people who are supposed to come to our rescue [28 year old man, Garden Compound].

I do not know even where to report cases of gender based violence. The Police are pathetic, they always mock people who report having been beaten by their wives. Also some family members can never be trusted when it comes to handling these issues. Others hear you but you get to hear that your story has spread to everyone in the family. Reporting to church is the solution somehow, but sometimes you present your case to the church and after it is resolved you get to hear it being used as an example. That way people still start to ridicule the victim [42 year old, Matero Township].

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusion

Globally, Gender Based Violence, in general is an issue that has had the whole world on its feet due to its adverse effects on individuals as well as families involved. In the recent years, the fight against Gender Based Violence has received center state by national governments regionally and globally. Men from different sections of society under the scope of study, through their experiences, gave their views on the nature of Gender Based Violence against men. Psychological violence, physical assault, financial abuse and verbal abuse were cited as the main forms of female perpetrated Gender Based Violence against men.

The study identified five factors that lead to Gender Based Violence against men that had a strong link to the problem under investigation which included failure to provide for family needs, alcohol abuse, and retaliation to past mistreatment of their spouses, adultery and psychological disorders. Regarding failure for a man to provide for his family, the study revealed that that most men experienced Gender Based Violence in form of psychological violence and verbal abuse after experiencing change in their economic statuses such as losing their employment since they could not manage to provide for their families. Regarding abuse of alcohol, it was found that excessive alcohol intake, both by the victim or the perpetrator, fueled Gender Based Violence against men. With regards to retaliation to past mistreatment of their spouses, the study revealed that women retaliated to act violently against their intimate partners due to the mistreatment they received from them in the past and for self-defense. With regards to adultery, the study revealed that some cases of Gender Based Violence against men are connected to extra-marital affairs. It can be concluded that women who believe that their husbands have an extramarital sexual partner are most likely able to react violently towards men out of jealous and anger. Lastly, psychological disorder is a factor that was cited as being a causer of Gender Based Violence especially for women with emotional imbalance.

Regarding the third objective, men’s reactions in the face of Gender Based Violence, in terms of reporting the cases were investigated as per research question. The findings showed that among the men who participated in the study, more men did not report cases of Gender Based Violence due to a number of reasons. Firstly, it was asserted that societal view of battered men hindered them to report cases to their families and most importantly to the law enforcers. Secondly, Police attitude was yet another cause for low reporting rates of Gender Based Violence against men. Furthermore, respondent felt that they had been ignored for a long time by law enforcement bodies and so that fact prevented them from reporting more cases. It is therefore important to note that Gender Based Violence against men has had adverse effect on the victims and it should be taken as an issue worthy to receive the attention from the government and other social institutions around the country and the world at large.

6.2 Recommendations

Based on the findings of the study, the following recommendations were made:

1. Since most marriages are founded in church, the church should introduce awareness and rehabilitation programmes specially designed to help both perpetrator and the victim of Gender Based Violence. This will minimize the adverse effects of Gender Based Violence on the family and prevent future escalation of the same.
2. The study found out that excessive alcohol abuse was one of the main causes of Gender Based Violence. It is therefore recommended that the government and other relevant stakeholders introduce laws that will compel people to avoid excessive intake of alcohol. Alternatively, the government should identify organizations that are working to minimize alcohol abuse among men and women.
3. As the barriers for reporting of Gender Based Violence have been identified, relevant bodies such as the Police through the Victim Support Unit and NGOs should take up the responsibility of holding campaigns to change the mindset of the society and law enforcers on Gender Based Violence against men.
4. Gender Based Violence against men is real, therefore, the government and the police through Victim Support Unit should not be biased in enforcing the law against the female perpetrators of Gender Based Violence.

REFERENCES

1. Adebayo, A. A. (2014). Domestic Violence against Men: Balancing the gender issues in Nigeria.
2. African Journal for the Psychological study of social issues.
3. Archer, J. (2000). Sex differences in aggression between heterosexual partners. A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin 126, 651−680.
4. Austin, J. B & Dankwort, J. (1999). Standards for Batterer Programs: A Review and Analysis.
5. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
6. Barkhizen, M. (2015). Police reaction to male victims of domestic violence in South Africa: Case study analysis. Police Practice and Research.
7. Barnes, S. Y. (1999). Theories of spouse abuse: Relevance to African Americans. Journal of Family violence.
8. Barnett, O.W. (2001), “Why Battered Women Do Not Leave, Part 2: External Inhibiting
9. Factors-Social Support and Internal Inhibiting Factors”. Trauma, Violence and Abuse.
10. Barnett, O. W., Lee, C. Y., & Thelen, R. E. (1997). Gender differences in attributions of self-defense and control in inter-partner aggression”. Violence against Women, 3, 462-481.
11. Best, J. W. & Kahn, J. V. (2009). Research in Education. Chicago: University of Illinois.
12. Black, M. C. (2011). Intimate Partner Violence and adverse Health consequences. American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine, 5(5) 428 – 439.
13. Bloom, S. S. (2008). Violence Against Women and Girls: A Compendium of Monitoring and Evaluation Indicators. North Carolina: University of North Carolina.
14. Brookes, L. (2008). What is Liberal Feminism? Retrieved 19 June 2019.
15. Bryman, A. (2012). Social Research Methods, 4th Edition. Oxford: Oxford Press.
16. Butler, J. (1999). Gender Trouble. Femininity and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge.
17. Capaldi, D. M. (2012). A systematic review of risk factors for intimate partner violence. Journal on Partner Abuse.
18. Carney, M., Buttell, F. & Dutton, D. (2006). Women who perpetrate intimate partner violence: A review of the literature with recommendations for treatment. Aggression and Violent Behavior 12 (2007) 108–115.
19. Chirwa, B., Ng’andu S.K. and Kalimaposo, K. (2016). ‘Defilement of Girls in Selected Primary and Secondary Schools in Lusaka Province: Implications for Guidance and Counselling.’ International Journal of Humanities Social Sciences and Education (IJHSSE). Volume 3, Issue 12, December 2016, pp 1-17. ISSN 2349-0373 (Print) and ISSN 2349-0381 (Online).
20. Coltrane, S. (1998). Gender and Families. London: Pine Forge Press.
21. Comack, E. & Brickey, S. (2007). Constituting the violence of Criminalized Women. Canadian Journal of Criminology and Criminal Justice.
22. Connell, R. W. (1995). Masculinities. California: University of California Press.
23. Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
24. Dobash, R. P. and Dobash, R. E. (2002). Women’s Violence to Men in Intimate Relationships.
25. Expanding Our Horizons Conference. Sydney.
26. Felson, C. (1998). Helping Children Cope with Traumatic Situations.
27. Fiebert, G. (1997), Battered Men: The Hidden Side of Domestic Violence. USA.
28. George, M. J. (2004). The Great Taboo and the Role of Patriarchy in Husband and Wife Abuse. International Journal of Men’s Health 6 (1), 7-21.
29. GIDD (2000). Gender Based Violence, Technical Committee Report. Cabinet Office, Zambia.
30. Giddens, A. (2001). Sociology. Oxford: Polity Press.
31. Gross, J. J. (2002). Emotion Regulation: Affective, cognitive, and social consequences. Journal of Psychophysiology.
32. Hoffman, K. L., Demo, D. H. & Edwards, J. N. (1994). Physical Wife abuse in non-western society: An integrated approach. Journal of Marriage and Family. 56, 131 – 146.
33. Jere, M. M. (2013). Factors leading to low prosecution of wife battery cases in Lusaka Urban.
34. Unpublished Master’s Thesis. University of Zambia.
35. Johnson, M. P. (2005). Domestic Violence: It is not about Gender-Or is it. Journal of Marriage and Family. 67:1126-1130.
36. Kaluyu, V. K. (2007). Causes, consequences and management strategies of gender based domestic violence: A case of central division of Katui district, Kenya. Egerton University.
37. Kombo, D. K. and Tromp, D. L. A. (2006). Proposal and Thesis Writing: An Introduction.
38. Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa.
39. Kothari, C. R. (2011). Research Methodology Methods and Techniques. New Delhi: New Age
40. Lubanze, I., Kalimaposo, K., Milupi, I., Mubita, K. and Mundende, K. (2022) “School Girls’ Experiences of Gender Based Violence: A Study of Selected Secondary Schools in Kaoma and Luampa Districts of Western Zambia” International Journal of Research and Innovation in Social Science (IJRISS) volume-6-issue-10, pp.437-446 October 2022 URL:

https://www.rsisinternational.org/journals/ijriss/Digital-              Library/volume-6-issue-10/437-446.pdf

41. McKeown, K. & Kidd, P. (2002). Men and Domestic Violence: What research tells us.
42. Maree, J. G. (2010). Research on life design (South Africa): A qualitative analysis. South African Journal of Psychology.
43. Musune, J. (2015). Female induced violence among men: A case of Lusaka Urban. Unpublished Master’s Thesis. University of Zambia.
44. National Gender Policy (2000). Violence against women and girls. Lusaka: Government Printers.
45. Okin, S. (1989). Justice, Gender and the Family. New York: Basic Books.
46. Onwumere, O. (2012). The Modern Man in Kenya.
47. Oyekanmi, F. (1997). Men Women and Violence. Council for the Development of Social Sciences Research in Africa. CODESRIA, UK.
48. Pillay, A. (2001). Violence against Women in the Aftermath. New York: Zed Books Ltd.
49. Pizzey, E. (1998). The Emotional Terrorist and Violence prone. Ottawa: Commoners’ Publishers.
50. Pleck, E. (1987), Domestic Tyranny: The making of American social policy against family violence from colonial times to the present. New York: Oxford University Press.
51. Robert, O. (2012). Kenyan Men protest domestic violence. Available at www.bbc.news/world-africa.
52. Robertson, K. & Murachver, T. (2009). Attitudes and Attributions Associated with Female and
53. Male Partner Violence. Journal of Applied Social Psychology 39.Sibling and Elder Abuse. SAGE Publications: New York.
54. Sampa, A. (1994). Gender Bias in the Zambian Court System: A Report Based on Research
55. Women and Law in Southern Africa WILDAF. Lusaka, Zambia.
56. Stark, W. S. (2015). Psychology and Behavioral Health 4th Edition. Amenia, NY: Salem Press at
57. Greyhouse Publishing.
58. Steinmatz, S. (1977), Battered Women: A Psycho Sociological Study of Domestic Violence.
59. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
60. Sugg, N. K., Thompson, R. S. & Thompson, D. C. (1999). Domestic violence and primary care: Attitudes, practices and beliefs. American Medical Association.
61. Swan, S. C. and Snow, D. L. (2003). Behavioral and Psychological Differences Among Abused
62. Women Who Use Violence in Intimate Relationships”. Violence against Women.
63. United Nations Development Fund for Women (1997). Spearheading United Nations system engagements with practical responses to violence against women. New York: United Nations.
64. UNICEF Survey (2016). Gender Equality: Evaluation Database. New York: UNICEF.
65. UNICEF (2000). Domestic Violence against Women and Girls. UNICEF Innocenti Research Centre.
66. VSU Annual Survey (2017). The Victim Support Unit Annual Survey 2016-2017. Lusaka: Government Printers.
67. Watts, C. & Zimmerman, C. (2002). Violence against women: global scope and magnitude. The Lancet.
68. WHO (1999). The World Health Report 1999 – Making a difference. World Health Organization.
69. WHO (2004). The World Health Report 2004 – Changing History. World Health Organization.
70. WHO (2010). Mental Health and Development: Targeting people with mental Health conditions as vulnerable Group. WHO: Italy.
71. White, J. W. & Kowalski, R. M. (1994). Deconstructing The Myth of the Non-aggressive Woman:
72. A Feminist Analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
73. Wiehe, V. R. (1998). Understanding family violence: Treating and preventing partner, child, sibling and elder abuse. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
74. World Bank (2018). The World Bank Annual Report 2018. World Bank Group.
75. World’s Women (2015). The Word’s Women 2015: Trends and Statistics. New York: United Nations.
76. ZDHS (2015). Zambia Demographic and Health Survey 2013-14. Lusaka: Government Printers.