Instructional Planning: Its Importance and Basic Components

Leeway Dave Karngbeae¹, Gabriel M. Kennedy²

^1,2 Department of Secondary Education, William V.S. Tubman College of Education, University of Liberia, Monrovia, Liberia

INTRODUCTION

This work traverses Instructional Planning, its importance, and attendant elements that facilitate the deconstruction of the curriculum into deliverable and interactive relationships between teachers and learners. As an African saying goes, “when spider webs unite, they can trap a lion.”  Gestalt Psychology also tells us that “the whole is equal to the sum of its parts” (Rathus, 2000). So it is with instructional planning, which has many components whose convergence attains successful teaching-learning experiences.

It follows therefore that a paper penned or typed for instruction that does not contain the basic ingredients for pedagogue-content activities is not a teaching plan. To this effect, this article examines instructional planning and its importance. Mainly featured in this work include the general models of instructional strategies, instructional aids, the classification of instructional objectives, classroom management, and evaluation. It concludes with what Pollard et al. (2006) call the teacher’s ‘Withitness,’ and Borich (2011) refers to as the ‘Powers of Teacher’ namely Legitimate Power, Expert Power, and Referent Power.

Essentially, a good teaching habit has no national boundaries or international peripheries (Anderson, 2007). In similar accord, instructional planning cannot be divorced from lesson objectives, instructional strategies, classroom management, teaching aids, and evaluation, as they form key components of the former; lest to obliviate the curriculum, an umbrella framework of any educational system. Accordingly, this brief article highlights salient information we need to know about instructional planning, its importance, and attendant attributes in our teaching engagements to attain ‘pedagogue-content’ knowledge, skills, and competencies. To provide clarity, samples of Instructional Plans conclude this work.

Curriculum: The Central Nerve of Education System

The crucial phase of the curriculum cycle known as curriculum implementation is when chosen tools, such as syllabi and schemes of work, lesson plans and notes, teaching-learning resources like textbooks and other readings, and the general school environment, are used to put selected techniques and strategies into practice (Mulengeki et al., 2013).

Pollard, A. et al. (2006) opine that a well-structured lesson with sequences of task interests motivates students and makes learning objectives clear, encourages individual learning, gives students the opportunity to think for themselves, and gives them control of their own education by utilizing interactive teaching strategies and collaborative group activities. Thus, instructional objectives, strategies, aids, classroom management, and evaluation are derivatives of instructional planning, which is itself an offshoot of the ‘curriculum,’ the central nerve of all educational systems. This presupposes that instructional planning and its attributes enumerated by Supa are inseparable offspring of the curriculum.

Henceforth, the term “curriculum” has no agreed-upon definition; its developers, researchers, specialists, and educators have ascribed varying definitions based on their own understanding. For instance, Moore (2007) defines curriculum as the plan of instruction; while Taba (1962) views it as a plan for learning. For his part, According to Foshby (1969), a curriculum is all of the experiences a student has while being supervised by an institution of learning.’

In a similar vein, Mutale Mulenga (2018) defined curriculum as the planned and directed learning experiences and intended learning objectives that are created under the supervision of the school for learners to progress in their personal-social competence continuously and purposefully. According to Macdonald, who is quoted in Ornstein and Hunkins (1998), ‘a curriculum is a social system that results in a plan for instruction, and he characterizes teaching and learning as taking place within another social system. Despite the varied definitions, the consensus is that Curriculum describes:

1. What pupils ought to know (KNOWLEDGE)
2. What students should be able to do (SKILL)

• How the curriculum should be taught (INSTRUCTION)

1. How the curriculum should be assessed (EVALUATION)
2. Hoe the educational system should be organized (CONTEXT)

In effect, the content of the curriculum, focus of books, resources, and school activities place value on what is taught and learned. The curriculum is thus a vital issue in the social reconstruction of culture and values as well as knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Pollard et al., 2006).

Instructional Planning and its Basic Ingredients

It should be noted that teaching objectives, strategies, aids, classroom management, and evaluation are inseparable ingredients of instructional planning which comprises pre-instructional skills, instructional skills, and post-instructional skills (Moore, 2007). Put simply, these skills represent planning, presentation, and evaluation of the lesson. They need to be mastered by all teachers for effectiveness, efficiency, and competence in lesson delivery. But what is instructional planning, you may probably want to ask.

Instructional planning may be defined as the development of a sequence of steps, events, or activities that lead the teacher to the achievement of desired objectives. It is also a blueprint of classroom activities involving a sequence of events to be carried with a specific group of students for a given period (Ministry of Education Handbook, 1984).

It entails the level of preparedness as well as the effort teachers make in gathering information, materials, and strategies for a lesson. Nonetheless, planning is not static; it is organic and dynamic, in that all plans at whatever level, should be open to modification and change depending on their success or limitations in promoting teaching-learning.

Regarding the importance of instructional planning, the Ministry of Education Handbook (1984) outlines two points of view featuring the administrator and the teacher respectively in the following manner:

The Administrator’s Point of View

1. To obtain evidence and evaluate the teacher’s ability to prepare and execute a professional teaching plan.
2. To evaluate the teacher’s ability to arrange curricular contents in a coherent manner.

• To avail the lesson plan to a substitute teacher for instruction.

The Teacher’s Point of View

1. To prepare oneself in terms of content, objectives, materials, strategies, and time of presentation, thus avoiding unstructured instruction.
2. To use the plan as evidence that it was prepared and executed.

• To ensure content coherence, and to win respect from colleagues, peers, administrators, students, and other interested parties.

1. To use the plan as a future reference to reinforce its strengths and improve on weaknesses revealed in the previous plan and presentation.

Instructional Strategies

As integral components of instructional planning, instructional strategies are sine qua non and therefore complement content delivery. Strategies, used interchangeably with the term ‘methods,’ refer to the procedures by which a goal is reached, purpose accomplished, and objectives achieved.

According to Welsh Office (1998, Standard B: k), as cited in Pollard et al. (2006), instructors should be able to employ instructional strategies that sustain the vitality of students’ work and keep them engaged by:

1. Stimulating intellectual curiosity, communicating enthusiasm, fostering, and maintaining students’ motivation.
2. Structuring information well, outlining content and objectives, signaling transitions, and summarizing key points as the lesson progresses.

• Effective questioning which matches the pace and direction of the lesson and ensures students’ involvement.

1. Listening carefully to students, analyzing their responses, and responding carefully.

Consequently, Stephen Petrina (in press), presents teaching strategies into five General Models or Families namely Didactic, Modeling, Managerial, Dialogic, and Experiential Instruction. These models have also been reduced by some educational theorists into three categories known as Transmissive, Transactive and Transformative Teaching. Model in this context means a system, pattern, design, or representation of something to be followed.

A catalog of the general models of teaching strategies begins with Didactic Teaching, a direct approach that takes the form of a lecture or presentation; while Modeling, also direct teaching involves visual demonstration and practice. They are both Teacher-Centered because the teacher imparts knowledge and demonstrates skills.

In contrast, Managerial Teaching, indirect and interactive, involves facilitation, individualization, and group management. The teacher organizes, facilitates, and allows students to take ownership of their learning with or without his or her involvement. It is Student-Centered because students think for themselves and manage their own learning. In a similar fashion. Experiential Instruction is indirect and Student-Centered. It requires students to experience, observe, and feel; they are actively involved in the absence of the teacher who had initially or earlier given instruction.

Some examples of experiential teaching are field trips, empirical research, projects, and term papers among others. Independent Study is also an example of the Experiential Model because it requires students to interact with content exclusive of external control of the teacher. At the Primary Education Level, we may safely equate experiential teaching to what we call HOMEWORK!!

Dialogic Instruction, indirect and interactive, involves what we refer to in education studies as the Socratic Method, Socratic Technique, or Socratic Seminar. This model features formal discussion or conversation in which questions derive through provocation (incitement, excitement, motivation, stimulation) to make someone act or react.

The Socratic Method is an educational strategy that makes use of a questioning-and-interaction process that was developed with the intention of eliciting responses and information from students, as opposed to imparting it to them (Moore, 2007). This is Teacher-Student-Centered because both parties are mutually engaged. In effect, it is safe to register here that all teaching strategies within the bounds of your imagination are reflections of the General Models of Instructional Strategies.

Instructional Materials or Aids

Of equal importance to instructional strategies, Instructional Aids1 play1 a pivotal1 role1 in1 the1 implementation of1 the1 lesson, as visuals or realia enhance content delivery. Abstract concepts in some cases at certain levels of learning may sometimes be difficult to internalize unless backed by visual aids and other appropriate teaching resources. As a popular universal saying goes, “seeing is believing,” although there are many perceptual styles. The selection of materials such as magazines, pictures, models, realia, and so forth is usually the responsibility of the teacher, and he or she should make a professional judgment about their appropriateness and worth (Tipton, 1998).

According to Beth, (2018), “Instructional Materials, also known as Teaching-Learning Materials (TLM), or Teaching Aids, are any collection of materials including animate and inanimate objects, human or non-human resources that a teacher uses in teaching situations to help achieve desired learning objectives.” They are important because they motivate students to learn better, clarify subject matter more easily, facilitate proper understanding and discourage cramming. Instructional Aids also increase students’ vocabulary more effectively and make the classroom lively and active. As such, surveying available media and preparing materials for instruction is essential for effective planning and presentation. (Moore, 2007).

Characteristically, teaching aids should be meaningful and purposeful, accurate, simple, inexpensive, and improvised. They should be visible enough to be seen by students and should be up-to-date, easily handy, reflect reality and students’ mental level and motivate them. Instructional materials do not have to be exotic or expensive to have educational value. Objects drawn from real-life, and models of real-life objects are sometimes all that will be available in remote rural school districts with low budgets (Heinich, Russell & Smaldino, 1996).

Instructional Objectives

All the same and by standard, lesson planning and presentation are guided by expected outcomes called objectives which should be procedural. The objectives, typically referred to as ‘specific objectives, instructional objectives, behavioral objectives, or performance indicators’ should be overt and observable – i.e., stated in action verbs. Accordingly, Bloom, Krathwoh, and Masia (1999), and Harrow and Moore (1977) have categorized instructional objectives into three domains known as ‘Cognitive, Affective, and Psychomotor,’ each of which comprises five levels arranged in hierarchical order.

Simply because behaviors can be classified into domains does not imply that behaviors mentioned in one domain do not contribute to the achievement of behaviors listed in other domains (Anderson & Krathwoh, 2001). For instance, it is impossible to think without also experiencing some sort of feeling in relation to what it is that you are thinking. In a similar vein, a significant portion of thinking requires the use of psychomotor skills and abilities because it involves the performance of bodily movements and activities. For example, typing on a laptop takes not just the use of your muscles and conscious thought about what you are doing, but it also requires that you have a feeling for and an interest in the content that you are typing.

Therefore, standing on the expert knowledge of the educational psychologists, authors, and proponents supra, the three domains of instructional objectives, reflected in Borich (2011), are briefly described infra:

Section 1: Cognitive Domain

This domain depicts the development of intellectual abilities and skills. Its first and foremost attributes include declarative knowledge, procedural knowledge, metacognitive knowledge, and performance assessment. Students must acquire generalizations, concepts, and rules related to certain fields or topics in order to demonstrate Declarative Knowledge. For instance, knowledge of the names of major natural resources, historical periods, theorems, principles, technical vocabulary, etc.

Procedural Knowledge entails how to do things. It includes abilities and actions that require action steps or procedures to be followed. Using drawing tools, doing arithmetic calculations, using a calculator, practicing handwriting, etc. are a few examples. Contrarily, metacognitive knowledge necessitates that students reflect on their own level of comprehension in order to ascertain whether or not it is producing desired results. Observing the efficiency of your current methods of action, for instance, and becoming aware of them.

Performance Assessment contends that while some skills are best assessed with pen and paper (test), there are others that require independent judgment, critical thinking, and decision-making. Performance Assessment measures skills or behaviors directly in the world outside of the classroom. It deals with real-life situations.

Levels of Cognitive Domain

The “Knowledge” level calls for pupils to comprehend or recall knowledge of facts, jargon, regulations, techniques for addressing problems, concepts, etc. At this level, there are a few action verbs like define, describe, list, state, identify, etc. ‘Comprehension’ level calls for some level of comprehension. It requires that pupils be able to switch between different forms of communication, interpret information using inference, and come to conclusions or recognize implications. At this level, some action verbs include “convert,” “defend,” “distinct,” “explain,” and “paraphrase.”

The ‘Application’ level mandates students to use the previously acquired information to solve problems in a different or new way. Some action verbs change, compute, develop, modify, prepare, etc.

Students at the “Analysis” level are expected to be able to distinguish between facts, views, assumptions, hypotheses, and conclusions; identify logical flaws; point out contradictions or incorrect inferences and point out erroneous inferences. Students are expected to be able to recognize relationships among ideas and compare concepts when they are working at the analytical level. Some examples of action verbs are analyzing, differentiating, deducing, illustrating, comparing, and contrasting.

The term “synthesis” implies that the student must create something completely new. Students at this level are required to come up with novel approaches to solving problems or to recombine existing elements in order to create something completely different. Verbs like finish, compose, design, produce, and graph are examples of action verbs.

‘Evaluation or Creation’ prepares students to make judgments and decisions about the worth of materials, ideas, people, or things with specified aims. Students are expected to state their judgments’ bases, i.e., the external criteria or principles they used to achieve their conclusion. Some action verbs include evaluating, judging, validating, supporting, authenticating, and so on.

Section 2: Levels of Affective Domain                        

Krathwoh, Bloom, and Masia,  (1999) defined the Affective Domain as the formation of attitudes, beliefs, values, and interests. The emotive domain’s five levels, like the cognitive domain’s, are organized in a hierarchical order. As you go up the hierarchy, you become more involved, committed, and reliant on yourself, rather than having your sentiments, attitudes, beliefs, and interests defined by others (Borich, 2011).

Receiving is the first level of this domain, and its aims demand pupils to be aware of or passively attend to particular phenomena (things that occur or exist) and stimuli. Students are asked to listen or be attentive at this level. This level includes verbs like as listen, hear, watch, share, notice, and glance. The second level, “Responding,” asks pupils to comply with provided expectations or instructions by attending to or reacting to specific stimuli. When asked or instructed to perform specific acts, students are expected to comply, participate, or reply voluntarily. Some examples of action verbs include obey, conform, applaud, follow, practice, and participate.

The third phase is ‘Valuing,’ which calls for students to display behaviors consistent with a single belief or attitude in situations where they are neither forced nor asked to comply. Students are expected to demonstrate performance or display a high degree of certainty and take a position. Some verbs are argued, persuade, convince, debate, display, etc.

At the level of ‘Organization,’ the fourth, commitment to a set of values is required. This level involves forming reasons why you value certain things and not others and making appropriate choices among things that are or are not valued. Students are expected to organize their likes and preferences into value systems and decide which one is dominant. Some verbs are formulated, abstract, decide, compare, contrast, hypothesize, etc.

The fifth and final level, ‘Characterization,’ requires that all student behaviors are compatible with their ideals. Not only have students mastered the actions of all previous levels, but they have also integrated their values into a framework that represents a full philosophy that prohibits contradicting manifestations. This level of behavior is evaluated based on the extent to which pupils have acquired a consistent philosophy of life, i.e., demonstrating respect for the worth and dignity of human beings and the environment in all circumstances. Some verbs, such as internalize, confirm, affirm, manage, and update, are avoided.

Section 3: Psychomotor Domain and its Levels

This domain entails the coordination of physical movements and performances involving neuromuscular skills and physical dexterity. Developed by Harrow (1977) and Moore (1992), the psychomotor domain comprises five levels which are hierarchical as in the cognitive and affective domains. When it comes to behaviors that fall within the psychomotor domain, the primary emphasis is placed on neuromuscular abilities, which involve varying degrees of physical dexterity. These skills affect both nerves and muscles (skill or adroitness in using the hands or body). Changes occur in this taxonomy as behaviors move from the simplest to the most sophisticated and authentic manner. These changes range from a mistake, wrong, or unacceptable to finer motor skills.

‘Imitation,’ the first level, requires learners to be exposed to an observable action, which is overtly imitated. The performance here lacks neuromuscular coordination. Behavior is generally crude (not developed to a high standard) and imperfect. Students are expected to observe and be able to repeat the action visually demonstrated. Some verbs are aligned, balance, hold, place, repeat, step here/there, etc.

The second level is called “Manipulation,” and it mandates students to carry out particular activities based on written or verbal directions or instructions, without the assistance of a visual model or direct observation, as was the case with the first level, “Imitation.” Students are expected to carry out the behavior by reading or listening to the instructions, despite the fact that the conduct may still be completed in a manner that is clumsy and lacks neuromuscular coordination. The action verbs used to describe outcomes at the manipulation level are identical to those used to describe outcomes at the imitation level; the only difference is that the outcomes at the manipulation level are executed in response to verbal or written instructions.

The third level, “Precision,” urges pupils to carry out an action without the use of either visual aids or a written set of instructions. At this level, proficiency—or the ability to replicate an action effectively—reaches a higher level of sophistication. The action is accompanied by accuracy, proportion (the capacity to determine what is important), balance, and exactness in performance. Students are expected to maintain control and minimize errors. The words accurate, without error, independent, proficient, with control, with balance, etc. are some examples of outcomes at this level.

The fourth is referred to as “Articulation,” and it challenges pupils to demonstrate coordination of a series of connected acts by setting the appropriate sequence and doing the act accurately while demonstrating control as well as speed and timing. Words like “confidence,” “coordination,” “harmony,” “integration,” “proportion,” “smoothness,” “speed,” “stability,” and “timing” are examples of phrases that can be used to describe the results at this level.

The fifth and final phase, “Naturalization,” necessitates a high level of competence in the performance or skill being taught. At this level, the behavior uses the least amount of energy and develops automaticity, routineness, and spontaneity. Students must repeat the behavior or skill naturally and unforcedly. Expressions like automatically, effortlessly, efficiently, effectively, naturally, professionally, habitually, spontaneously, with ease, with perfection, and with poise, i.e., calm and confident, can be used to characterize outcomes at this level.

Classroom Management

Conclusively, the achievement of instructional objectives as enumerated supra is dependent upon effective classroom management skills. Hence it is noteworthy to highlight key points thereof. Withiess, a classroom management skill, coined by Kounin (1970), describes the ability of the teacher to be aware of a wide variety of things that are simultaneously going on in the classroom. Teachers who are withit are said to ‘have eyes in the back of their head.’ They can anticipate where help is needed and nip trouble in the bud (Pollard et al., 2006). Teachers of withitness are alert; they pre-empt disturbance and act fast.

Classroom Management, an administrative domain of instruction, potentiates the teaching-learning process by allowing teachers to conduct and monitor activities in the classroom environment. According to Johnson and Dickson (1998) and Pate Bain et al. (1992), behavior management is of perennial concern to all teachers because of the number of students in a typical classroom. As such, classroom management is intended to maintain decorum, minimize disruption, and maximize learning.

Classroom Management organizes, controls, and directs classroom activities (In-Service C-Certificate Manual, 2008). Interestingly, proper lesson planning and skillful presentation provide the fulcrum upon which rests effective classroom management. This calls for stimulating, motivating, and involving learners by using genuine instructional aids and strategies, skillful questioning techniques which may be convergent or divergent – ie. Close-ended or Open-ended.

Successful classroom managers promote students’ involvement in learning activities, foster self-regulation, prevent disciplinary problems, and relate to students with care and respect (Moore 2007). Potent classroom management, he continues, reduces distraction, minimizes infractions (the act of breaking rules), fosters security or safety, increases students’ comfort, and stimulates their interest in learning tasks.

Moore (2007) further suggests that people think of the classroom as a place for only teaching-learning. But more than that, he insists, it encompasses a place for fun, making friends, passing notes, social interaction, trying out new roles (leadership), developing trust and confidence, and a sense of self-identity –ie. Knowing who you are or awareness of your strengths and limitations.

As a ‘rule of thumb,’ classroom management cannot be discussed in neglect of ‘rules and routines,’ which are basic to behavior management in the classroom setting. In effect, classroom management rules involve directions that teach pro-social behavior and create an environment convenient for teaching-learning. According to Cruickshank et al. (2006), there is a consensus that five or eight rules are the maximum number students can easily recall. They furthered that the wording should be simple and specific to avoid ambiguity – ie. Unclear, confusing, or alternative interpretations. That student should participate in the development of these rules, as they are the target and cannot be ruled out!

‘Proximity Control’ is inherent in classroom management and is an excellent technique for minimizing disruption (Anderson, 2008). This classroom management skill requires the teacher to close in on a student or group involved in unwarranted acts or behaviors. The technique is especially necessary during the administration of tests or examinations when the teacher suspects that a student (s) is cheating or spying.

Invariably, classroom routines, on the other hand, are established procedures that direct and coordinate students’ movements and occurrence of events such as passing on papers and materials, taking attendance, students grouping, and collecting papers, or assignments. Routines regulate the use of materials or equipment, guide transitions, and other teacher-led activities.

Furthermore, routines make lessons effective by reducing disruptions, as every event or move in the classroom is guided by procedures. For example, a student wishing to speak or step out may raise a hand and speak, ask for an excuse, or use material, equipment, or facility. Similarly, when transitioning from one activity to another, the teacher may use verbal or non-verbal language, use the phrase ‘attention, please,’ raise his/her hands, clap, or sing.

Meanwhile, factors that frequently influence classroom disruptions may be grouped into ‘student-caused, teacher-caused, administrator-caused, parent-caused, environment-caused, and government-caused.’ These personalities and factors have inherently and inseparably influenced the educational system for the time in memorial.

Curriculum Evaluation

Alluding to a convention, curriculum, and ultimately an instructional plan which is void of evaluation must exist in dystopia. In other words, all curricula and instructional plans are subject to evaluation so that feedback on students’ performance and teacher effectiveness can be ascertained. Against this backdrop, evaluation climaxes the interaction between teachers and students in the teaching-learning process referred to as ‘instruction’.

Evaluation, therefore, is the process of making a judgment regarding students’ performance, using measurement to provide data for making the judgment (Hills, 1981). In a similar vein, educators must assess students’ progress in relation to specific learning goals. As a result, the central concern in the learning process is whether or not pupils have acquired the necessary knowledge (Ahmann & Glock, 1981).

Evaluation may be necessary in the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains, all of which call for the collecting of information from a variety of various types and sources. It should come as no surprise that educators require continuous input in order to organize, monitor, and assess education. In order to collect this information, one may make use of any one of the following three categories of assessment: diagnostic, formative, or summative. These three types of evaluation differ primarily in terms of where in the instructional process they are located chronologically (Moore, 2007).

Diagnostic Evaluation which examines pupils’ prior understanding of a subject or theme, is typically given before instruction and poses the question, “How much do we know?” The goal is to identify any potential learning obstacles and, in most circumstances, to place students in the appropriate courses or classes. When students enroll in a course or class, it gives professors crucial information on the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of those students. It can also serve as the foundation for corrective or specialized instruction. Examinations created by teachers, standardized tests, or observations are all examples of a diagnostic evaluation, which can provide important information about the suitability of the curriculum.

Formative Evaluation asks, “How are we doing?’ and is conducted during instruction to provide feedback to students and teachers alike on students’ performance and teacher effectiveness. Formative Evaluation allows teachers to revise diagnostic information and modify instruction.

When individual students’ learning gaps are identified, pupils need to participate in remedial instruction, which should be carefully organized so that they can catch up to the level of their classmates. The Formative evaluation consists primarily of pre-tests (quizzes), checkup tests, homework assignments, seatwork, and questions posed in the classroom (Moore, 2007).

The question “How did we do?” is asked during the summative evaluation, the primary objective of which is to determine the level of achievement attained by the students for the purpose of assigning grades, which explains to the students the reasoning behind passing or failing the course. The word “summative evaluation” does exactly what its name suggests: it compiles students’ achievements, the majority of which are founded on “cognitive knowledge,” as opposed to values, attitudes, feelings, interests (affective), and psychomotor performance.

The end-of-chapter tests, assignment grades, homework grades, project grades, and standardized achievement tests are all part of the Summative Evaluation. These assessments can be used to judge not only the accomplishments of the students but also the efficiency of the instructors and the content of the curriculum.

The process of evaluation ought to be ongoing and comprise summative, formative, and diagnostic components. Teachers can frequently learn important information about students’ abilities, such as their cognitive, motor, or affective attitudes, before, during, and after lessons. Clearly, teachers must have a high level of confidence in the data they gather and employ tools that deliver genuine and reliable information if they are to make assessments of students’ performance (Moore, 2007).

As we’ve seen, the curriculum serves as a central repository for instructional planning, as well as for its significance and related characteristics. Thus, the paradigm of instructional strategies includes managerial, experiential, and dialogic teaching (transactive and transformative), as well as didactic and modeling teaching (transmissive), and encompasses all forms of education that have ever been thought of or applied.

Powers of the Teacher

On the other hand, the use of relevant and well-selected teaching aids, supported by effective classroom management, and reliable and valid evaluation tools lead to the achievement of desired objectives.

Thus, being an embodiment of professional lesson planning with regard to its importance and attributes transforms the teacher into an expert instructional planner and strategist. To this effect, the use of these strategies and aids, coupled with skillful classroom management ability qualifies any teacher to possess what Borich (2011) refers to as three distinct powers in the classroom namely Legitimate Power, Expert Power, and Referent Power.

By ‘Legitimate Power’ is meant that the teacher is officially assigned to a class at a specific time during which he or she takes control and manages, using classroom management and effective communication skills. ‘Expert Power’ on the other hand, mandates the teacher to possess expert knowledge, information, skills, and mastery of ‘pedagogue-content’ competencies in the delivery of subject matter. Possessing ‘Referent Power’ requires the teacher to always be available, accessible, approachable, and accountable.

He or She should not appear or act like a ‘Boogieman’ who is feared by students, colleagues, peers, administrators, parents, or interested parties. He or She must possess the qualities of what Kounin (1970) refers to in education studies as ‘WITHITNESS.’ Teachers who are withit are skillful in scanning the class even while helping individual students; and can position themselves accordingly (Pollard et al., 2006).

In view of the foregoing, curriculum implementation in all its spheres is procedural. It can be concluded therefore that curricular documents are intended to prepare the individual learner for positive change in behavior, self-improvement, self-actualization, and societal reconstruction. Therefore, regardless of level, curriculum changes should be made to help students achieve their own aspirations as well as those of their schools, societies, and probably most significantly, those of themselves (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998).

Brief Descriptions and Samples of Instructional Plans

The National Curriculum, a long-range instructional plan, also referred to as Yearly Program, is divided into two academic semesters, each of which comprises three Marking periods with a duration of six weeks each. In its delivery during a marking period, the curriculum is deconstructed or broken down into Medium Range Plans to accommodate specific subjects or content units.

This plan may also be referred to as a Scheme of Work, which is divided into Standard and Abridged Medium Range Plans, with the former consisting of unit topics, while the latter stores Daily Lesson topics. In this respect, each week carries specific topics or sub-topics and activities to be covered and evaluated. Typically, the medium-range plan is the breakdown of major topics into sub-topics to be delivered within a given marking period, as prescribed by the Ministry of Education.

The Daily Lesson Plan, on the other hand, is a Short-Range Plan. It is an organized body of content materials that is prepared, presented, and evaluated in the pursuit of teaching-learning experiences daily. Its basic ingredients include the grade, subject, topic, specific objectives or performance indicators, instructional methods, instructional aids, instantiating activities, developmental activities, summary, evaluation, and assignment.

The Standard or Conventional Medium-Range Plan

Teacher: Dave Leeway  Grade: 8 Subject: Social Studies  Marking Period: First-(1^st) Duration: Sept. 12–Oct. 21, 2022

The Abridged Medium-Range Plan

Teacher: Dave Leeway  Grade 8  Subject: Social Studies Marking Period: First (1^st)  Duration: Sept. 12 – Oct 21, 2022

TEACHER’S DAILY LESSON PLAN

Teacher: ___________________________________             Date: _____________________

Grade:   8                              Subject: Social Studies      Duration: _________________

Topic: Defining Geography and Its Branches

Instructional Objective (s): Upon completion of the lesson, students should be able to:

1. define Geography
2. name and define the branches of Geography

Teaching Aids                                                                                                     Teaching Methods

The classroom Presentation and Procedures (Classroom Activities}

Initiating Activities/Introduction: Teacher places flashcards in the corners of the classroom prior to class time. He/She brainstorms students on their knowledge about the Subject Geography.

Developmental Activities (Main Activities): Teacher introduces lesson and writes topic on the chalkboard. He/She asks students to search in the corners of the classroom and pick up the papers they find. Teacher tells students with the papers to come in front of the class and read what they have one at a time followed by brief discussion. He/she distributes the handouts containing lesson notes.

Summary/Conclusion: Teacher defines Geography and its branches.

Evaluation

Teacher asks students to put away their handouts and orally define Geography and its branches.

Assignment: Teacher instructs students to read pp. 24-29 of the reference below for next class discussion.

CONCLUSION

As we have peregrinated Instructional Planning, Its Importance, and its Components, it is instructive to conclude that the process is a derivative of the curriculum, the central nerve of educational systems the world over. Thus, the term curriculum, comprising varying and controversial definitions, may by consensus be referred to be a statement of knowledge, skills, instruction, evaluation, and context. This implies what students should be able to know and do; how the knowledge and skills should be transmitted and assessed; and how the educational system should be organized and conducted.

To this end, the process of instructional planning mandates the teacher, an instructional expert, a manager, a leader, and a counselor to organize and prepare clear and succinct instructional objectives, select appropriate teaching strategies and aids, possess effective classroom management and communication skills, and the ability to evaluate students’ learning.

This route is important is because it allows the teacher to prepare a professional plan in terms of what to teach and how well to teach, bearing in mind students’ various learning styles. Whereas the administrator is interested in ascertaining the teacher’s ability to prepare a teaching plan in coherence with the content of the curriculum.

As Pollard (2006) puts it, a well-structured lesson plan with sequences of task interest motivates students and makes learning clear, employs interactive teaching methods and collaborative group work, promotes independent learning, enables learners to think for themselves, and manages their own learning.

Empirically, instructional planning and presentation call for teachers who are “withit” because they possess pedagogue-content competencies, and legitimate, expert, and referent powers. All the same, they are always available, accessible, approachable, and accountable as experts, managers, counselors, and leaders. They are what the Latin phrase refers to as “In loco parentis” – i.e. In the place of parents.

A popular saying goes that “seeing is believing.” In this accord, this work concludes with samples of Instructional Planning illustrating the deconstruction of the curriculum. Virtually, therefore, it is safe to assert that curriculum developers are architects, teachers are engineers, students are consumers, and society is the single-most beneficiary. That the student, a product of the curriculum returns to reconstruct society cannot be over-emphasized.

These assertions are evident as Madam Indira Gandhi, Former Prime Minister of India postulated these few words of wisdom: “Education is a liberation force, and in our age, it is democratizing force, cutting across the barriers of caste and class, smoothing out inequalities imposed by birth or other circumstances.”

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