Politics of Corporate Social Responsibility in the Education Sector: A Study of Selected Secondary Schools Supported by Kamoto Mine in Central Zambia

Kalisto Kalimaposo¹, Leonard Mumba², Harrison Daka³, Chidongo Phiri⁴, Farrelli Hambulo⁵

^1,2,3,4,5University of Zambia, School of Education

This study explored politics of corporate social responsibility in the education sector. While the provision of education is the primary responsibility of the Zambian government, it was of the considered view that, the mining companies needed to take part in the provision of secondary education as a way of enhancing their Corporate Social Responsibility. After independence, Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines (ZCCM) supported schools and hospitals on the Copperbelt from independence to the early 1990s through its Medical and Education Trust (MET) as its Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). However, with the privatization of the mines, it has been observed that CSR in the education sector seems to have declined over the years. Therefore, this study sought to fill the knowledge gap by investigating the contributions made by Kamoto Mine to secondary education in selected schools of Sandwe District of Central Zambia. Kamoto and Sandwe are used as pseudonyms for the mine and the district. The study employed a descriptive design with a sample size of 50 participants. Interviews, focus group discussions and questionnaires were used in the collection of data.

The findings showed that, the mining companies had made considerable strides in enhancing their Corporate Social Responsibility in secondary education in Sandwe District. They have spear-headed sports activities, giving presents to higher performing learners, donated teaching and learning materials such as computers, books, pens, and flip-charts. In terms of infrastructure, the mining companies had fenced secondary schools and built 1×3 and 1×6 class room blocks. They had also built computer rooms, science laboratory and toilets. The mining company had no clear sponsorship policies. Nevertheless, they had trained teachers in First-Aid and Information and Communication Technology (ICT).

The study recommended that the mining firms should develop a CSR strategy to be integrated into the business strategy. The mining entity should create a communications plan in their CSR execution with various stakeholders particularly the local community. Partnerships between Ministry of Education and business community is key to encourage dialogue between the mining company and education sector in order to understand and promote CSR principles and practices. In this context, integrating CSR into education, training and research should be prioritized. Government should put in place legislation that would encourage business corporations to have Corporate Social Responsibility policies especially in areas such as education so that business corporations give back to the communities where they are operating from. Since the mining sector is the major contributor to the development of the Zambia’s economy in general and the Zambia’s Treasury in particular, there is need for more studies to be conducted in order to ascertain how much the mining industry is contributing to education as part of their Corporate Social Responsibility.

KEYWORDS: Corporate social responsibility, Kamoto mine, Zambia Consolidated Copper  Mines, Medical & Education Trust, Social Exchange Theory.

INTRODUCTION

Education is a means for enhancing the well-being and quality of life for the entire society. In Zambia, “education is intended to serve individuals, social and economic well-being and to enhance the quality of life for all” (Kelly 1999: 222). Therefore, education is the most effective tool to fight poverty and reducing social and economic inequalities at both national and global levels. Asian Development Bank (2011) states that quality education is essential for creating a sustainable human resource base upon which to build a country’s development. Education is a major factor in enhancing a country’s social and economic development as it aids in the fight against hunger and poverty (Ministry of Education, 2011: XIV). Kelly (1999) posits that education is taken to comprise organized and sustained communication designed to bring about learning. Learning entails any change in behavior, information, knowledge, understanding, attitude, skills or capabilities which can be retained and which cannot be ascribed to physical growth or to the development of inherited behavior pattern.

Globally, national governments have the Ministry of Education which is responsible for integrating national resources to promote education for the good of the public (World Bank, 2006). Literature shows consistently and over time that countries that invest heavily in education and skills benefit economically and socially. Every dollar invested in attaining high-skill qualifications results in getting even more money back through economic growth. Countries that give individuals one additional year of education can boost productivity and raise economic output by 3%−6% over time (LaRocque 2007). Research also indicates that, it is not the increased financing parse that increases educational outcomes, but how that money is used (Sibajene, Mubita, Milupi, Chakulimba & Kalimaposo, 2023).

From the late 1960s to the early 1990s mining in Zambia was dominated by the state-owned Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines (ZCCM) which financed education in the nation. It was far more than just a company it was the heart of the social and economic development of the Copperbelt region in particular and Zambia as a whole. The mines are now in the hands of investors. In spite of an expanding Mining sector in Zambia and the huge returns that these investors are earning, the poverty levels, poor educational infrastructure, social and economic inequalities in the area are still high (Fraser and Lungu, 2010). Against this background, this study intended to explore the contribution made by Kamoto Mining Company to secondary education of Sandwe District in the education sector.

Statement of the Problem

The Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines (ZCCM) supported schools and hospitals on the Copperbelt from independence to the early 1990s through its Medical and Education Trust (MET) as its Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). However, with the privatization of the mines, it has been observed that CSR in the education sector seems to have declined over the years (Frazer and Lungu, 2010 and Chibuye 2016). Therefore, this study sought to fill the knowledge gap by investigating the contributions made by Kamoto Mine to secondary education in selected schools of Sandwe District of Central Province. In spite of the empirical evidence documented on the contribution of the private organizations such as the mining industry and the church to education sector by LaRocque; 2007, Chatterjee and Mitra; 2017, and Chibuye; 2016, none of the studies looked at the contribution of the mining sector to secondary education outside the Copperbelt province of Zambia, and hence this study.

General Research Objective

To explore the contributions made by Kamoto Mining Company to secondary education in selected schools of Sandwe District of Central Zambia.

Specific Research Objectives

• To establish the Corporate Social Responsibility of Kamoto Mine in the education sector.
• To explore the prospects and challenges of Corporate Social Responsibility of Kamoto Mine in the education sector.
• To investigate the sponsorship policies the mining company put in place towards enhancing Corporate Social Responsibility in the education sector.

Research Questions

• What kind of Corporate Social Responsibility has Kamoto Mining Company done to secondary education?
• What are the prospects and challenges of Corporate Social Responsibility of Kamoto Mine in secondary education sector?
• What sponsorship policies has Kamoto Mine put in place towards enhancing Corporate Social Responsibility in secondary education sector?

THEORETICAL FRAME WORK

Social Exchange Theory

The study was guided by two theoretical frameworks, that is, Social Exchange Theory and Stakeholder theory on Corporate Social Responsibility. The Exchange Theory was advocated by George Homans and Peter Blau in 1989.  The theory is based on the principle of reciprocal. The host nation and the investors should both benefit in the mining of copper in Zambia.

Social Exchange Theory involves comparing the cost of action to its benefits. It outlines two major factors to consider when an individual wants to perform any course of action, that is, rewards or benefits versus punishment or costs. It explains that human beings always try to avoid losses or costs and maximize benefits or rewards. According to Homans (1989) when a person’s actions receive the rewards he expected, especially a greater reward than he expected or does not receive punishment he expected, he will be pleased. He becomes more likely to perform that approving behavior and the result of such behavior becomes more variable to him.

Stakeholder theory on Corporate Social Responsibility

Stakeholder theory is a concept that emphasizes the interrelationship between business and its various stakeholders (Jansson, 2005). The stakeholder theory maintains that an organization should create value for its various stakeholders who are affected by its business actions and decisions and not only its shareholders. One of the primary functions of a business, is to serve the needs of its stakeholders. However, more and more businesses are taking this responsibility one step further by seeking out ways to address global issues to ultimately make the world a better place to live in. These actions are referred to as Corporate Social Responsibility.

Corporate Social Responsibility has managed to integrate itself into the corporate culture and has evolved as an integral aspect of corporate performance reviews. It is a voluntary concept to be adopted by organizations. It integrates the social and environmental dimensions of a business in its operational activities. Stakeholder theory highlights the significance of conducting business operations by taking into consideration the larger societal benefits.

Jansson (2005) states that  the scope of Corporate Social responsibility has now evolved to become a more inclusive concept involving various stakeholders and ensuring that businesses are operating in an ethical and sustainable manner. With customers becoming more socially and environmentally aware, companies are increasingly getting more customer-centric. A key tool towards superior customer service is to integrate Corporate Social Responsibility in bringing about radical changes and benefits to the company and the overall socio-environmental arena. While implementing CSR as a part of their corporate culture, organizations need to align their business goals with employees’ goals. This helps the leadership to come to a consensus on the desired CSR actions considering the interests of all the stakeholders (Yumba, Mbozi & Kalimaposo, 2018).

LITERATURE REVIEW

Chatterjee and Mitra (2017) noted that it is the responsibility of government to provide a conducive environment for equality of CSR through its social security measures and other policies. On the other hand, it is the Corporation that should take the onus in pursuance of their ‘social license to operate’ objectives. This is often an inconclusive debate, where the perspectives often differ between the developed countries to the emerging countries. Deshmukh (2017) observed that CSR is becoming an increasingly important activity to businesses nationally and internationally. To him, Corporate Social Responsibility, often abbreviated CSR is a corporation’s initiative to assess and take responsibility for the company’s effects on environmental and social wellbeing. Corporate Social Responsibility in Education in India has mostly involved steps to promote education among local communities by building schools, scholarships, helping schools run efficiently by providing teaching aids, books, uniform, shoes, and bags. It involves building secondary schools in localities that do not have one and train teachers (Deshmukh, 2017).

Chibuye (2016) conducted a study on the Contribution of Mopani Copper Mine (MCM) and Konkola Copper Mine (KCM) companies in 2016 in the education sector in Zambia. The study was conducted in Kitwe, Mufulira and Chingola towns in Copperbelt Province of Zambia. The purpose of the study was to examine and compare the contribution of MCM and KCM in enhancing the CSR. The findings in the study showed that, the mining companies had established the link with TEVETA accredited institutions sponsoring school leavers at those institutions, manage trust schools and support some tertiary institutions through partnership.  The study indicated that, Mopani Copper Mine admitted 90% of the school leavers and 10% of its workers were trained through in-service, established a modern trade’s school in 2014 and sponsored some vulnerable children (OVCs) in secondary schools (Chibuye, 2016).

Konkola Copper Mine on the other hand had opened community schools and sponsored pupils from trust schools to train abroad. In terms of trends, the mining firms are making some efforts in enhancing CSR in the education sector though much can be done in the sense that around the year 2005 copper prices were doing fine on the world market. Both MCM and KCM mining companies were reported to have training policies by offering sponsoring outstanding learners to various institutions in Zambia and offering scholarships to study in South Africa respectively (Chibuye, 2016). The reliability of the findings in this study is questionable as the researcher targeted mining officials and mine workers only instead, leaving out those in education sector who were the primary beneficiaries. The mining officials and mine workers were supposed to be secondary target group. The researcher should have targeted officials from the education sector and the host learning institutions in the area. Descriptive survey design which is an approach in the qualitative research was employed in study with a sample size of 96 participants. The study used the one-to-one interviews, focus group discussion (FGD) and questionnaire as data collection instruments for primary data.

Cheelo (2016) while acknowledging the fact that, the mine has supported government efforts in providing both health and education services, actually all projects instituted by the mine are located outside the communities surrounding the mining area. Cheelo made exception to only water projects. Cheelo established that, local communities benefited from operations of the mine through their Corporate Social Responsibilities but this benefit is hampered by the fact that new investors are not welfare organizations and are not experts in service delivery, implying that even under this CSR initiative, the local communities still lose out. On employment creation, Cheelo (2016) stated that jobs to the local people were mostly those of semi-skilled and unskilled nature.  He attributed this to low levels of education and skills of the local people.

Conje et al (2008) notes that CSR in the Zambian mining industry is relatively ineffective in terms of facilitating sustainable development. In most areas, Corporate Social Responsibility is either negligible or non-existent. Where Corporate Social Responsibility directives exist, specifically pertaining to environmental factors, sub-standard practices continue to persists. Communities have continued to experience the consequences of the gaps between policy and practice, policy and human rights, practice and human rights which impact heavily on the potential for sustainable development.

Dahan and Senol (2012) noted that universities, especially private ones need strong corporate strategies in order to be successful in the highly competitive education industry. Corporate Social Responsibility becomes one of the highly preferred strategies by higher education institutions for gaining a good reputation and a competitive advantage. Kiran and Sharma (2011) with the introduction of globalization and liberalization, the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility is gaining importance. In view of the changes in the industrial scenario due to globalization, it becomes imperative for institutions to introduce CSR as a course with a view of bringing effectiveness and efficiency in education sector.

Fraser and Lungu (2009) observed that the development agreements between government and investors typically pass responsibility for the upkeep of mining townships from mining companies to the local municipal authorities. In some cases, they leave the responsibility with the mining company for the first five years only.  In towns such as Luanshya, the transition has been extremely difficult since income for local authority would have come predominantly from the mining company. Since the pulling out of investors, there was no funding in the area.  The local authority has not been able to adequately cover for the services previously provided by the mine.  Particularly the charging of rentals, electricity and water bills have led to serious hardships for residents.

All the companies interviewed were keen to discuss their support for the concept of Corporate Social Responsibility and to list worthwhile projects that the companies could support in the townships.  Valentine and Fleischman (2008) revealed that, CSR was thus typically understood not to relate to employment, procurement or environmental practices of the companies, but instead was conceived of in terms of support to local community sports and developmental projects. Given the expensive role of ZCCM in supporting the social fabric of the Copperbelt and the acknowledgement on the part of Government, companies and unions argued that it is unlikely private firms would ever make an equivalent investment in their surrounding communities. There is significant tension between companies and their surrounding communities over how much companies should be expected to deliver (Fraser, 2009).

Feeny (2001) argued that privatization of Zambia Consolidated Copper Mines (ZCCM) which was widely and actively encouraged by the donor community as a means of reducing corruption, inefficiency and waste was supposed to bring new investment and development in the Copperbelt reinvigorating the local economy and restoring its severely degraded environment, yielded negative results. In reality, despite all the talks about Corporate Social Responsibility, the new mine owners have shown themselves remarkably reluctant to assist schools and cash strapped local councils in the area to improve social service provision (Lungu, 2001).

This was confirmed by the Chamber of Mines (2001) findings. CSR in Zambia seem to be non-starter. The privatized companies have been involved in serious incidents of environmental mismanagement that have compromised the health of local people.  The three most common and serious problems were sulphur dioxide emissions from smelters, heavy- metal effluents being released into drinking water and silting of local rivers.  Health and safety practice across the mining industry is extremely uneven and high fatalistic. Careless safety was constantly raised by workers and residents against the mining companies. Chamber of Mines documented that, the world has been reduced to a global village where multinational companies’ practices are being replicated in all countries of investment and Zambia is no exception.

This syndrome by the mining companies to neglect Corporate Social Responsibility was also supported by a Global Survey carried out in 2002 by Ernst and Young (Asocio, 2004). The findings showed that, 94% of companies believe that the development of CSR strategy can deliver real business benefits. However, only 11% have made significant progress in implementing the strategy in their organizations.  The research concluded that corporations are failing to recognize the benefits of implementing CSR strategies despite increased pressure to include ethical, social and environmental issues into their decision-making processes.

Most of the reviewed studies in this study have not looked at the contribution of Corporate Social Responsibility to the education sector, but rather they are pre-occupied with environmental issues, and employment opportunities. Those that have incorporated the component of education include; Desmukh (2017), Chibuye (2016), Dahan and Senol (2012), and Kiran and Sharma (2011). Chibuye (2016) notes that there is a gap in terms of studies carried out in Zambia about mining companies’ contribution to education. Chibuye further pointed out that, since mining of copper is the major earner of Zambia’s foreign exchange, there is need for more studies to be conducted in order to ascertain how the mining industry is contributing to education as part of their Corporate Social Responsibility.

METHODOLOGY

This study used a descriptive design. A research design is the ‘glue’ that holds all the elements in a research project together. A design is used to structure the research, to show how all the major parts of the research project work together to try to address the central research questions. Burns and Grove (2003:195) defined a research design as “a blueprint for conducting a study with maximum control over factors that may interfere with the validity of the findings”. Parahoo (1997:142) described a research design as “a plan that describes how, when and where data are to be collected and analyzed”.

Polit et al (2001:167) define a research design as “the researcher’s overall for answering the research question or testing the research hypothesis”.  Aggarwal (2008) and Kalimaposo (2010) state that descriptive research is devoted to the gathering of information about prevailing conditions or situations for the purpose of description and interpretation. This type of research method is not simply amassing and tabulating facts but includes proper analyses, interpretation, comparisons, identification of trends and relationships (Banda & Kalimaposo, 2016). The rationale for using a qualitative approach in this research, was to explore in detail the contribution made by the mining companies in the education sector. A qualitative approach was appropriate to capture the opinions of participants about the contribution of the mining companies to the education in Zambia.

The targeted sample in this study was fifty (50). Convenience sampling was used for a cross section of 27 teachers from three schools in the area.  All key informants were purposively sampled. They were purposively sampled using typical sampling. In this study, data were analyzed according to the research questions and subsequently according to the concepts and themes. Themes were identified based on objectives and information addressing that particular theme which were collected from data collection tools and field notes that were taken both from interview guide and observation notes (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2007). In this study, data were analyzed as they were collected since the study was qualitative.  Data were derived from research questions and analyzed according to themes that emerged. Thematic analysis involved synthesizing, evaluating, interpretating, categorizing, comparing and pattern finding.

RESEARCH FINDINGS

The findings of the study indicated that, the mine had positively contributed to secondary education. Out of 50 participants, 36 participants representing 72% agreed to the assertion that, the mining firm had positively contributed to secondary education while 14 representing 28% strongly agreed. This entails how the research participants appreciated the commitment of the mining entity in supporting secondary education. The firm had supported educational activities in the district whenever called upon. In line with stakeholder theory on Corporate Social Responsibility, an organization that adopts Corporate Social responsibility has moral, ethical, and discretionary responsibilities in addition to their economic and legal obligations.

The mining firm shouldered not only primary stakeholder requirements but secondary stakeholder wants, needs and desires. The ethical responsibility demands what was right even when not required by the spirit of the law. This is the theory’s keystone argument and it depends on a coherent corporate culture that views the business itself as a citizen in society.  The mining company had supported sports activities, rehabilitated some old classroom blocks, built new classroom blocks at Kamoto Secondary and Kamoto Basic Schools and sponsored the best performing learners to pursue tertiary education.

During interviews, a mine official (03) stated that:

I am happy that as Kamoto Mine, we have come in to assist the government in training of the school leavers. The full sponsorship being awarded to students is expected to greatly help in resolving the current shortage of skilled man power in various fields in country.

Similarly, another official from Kamoto mine (01) reported that:

At the time when it has become so difficult for students in higher learning institutions to get scholarships due to increased competition and demand, I am happy that as a mining company, we have come in to assist the government by providing the much-needed training for the young people at no cost.

The findings from the study indicated that the mining company was ploughing back to the community just as George Homans and Peter Blau’ Social Exchange Theory of 1989 stated. Blau explained the necessity of both parties in any relationship to benefit. The theory explained that, in formal organization, life is governed by norms and values which are internalized by individual persons through socialization and these rules and values are shared and become a common standard in identifying rewards and punishment as well as what constitutes a fair exchange. Similarly, in business world, Corporate Social Responsibility has been a requirement for companies operating in foreign land. The success of a company can be made possible only when the interests of all involved stakeholders are met. One of the most important stakeholders in the field of Corporate Social responsibility is the community in which mining companies are operating (Deshmukh, 2017).

The stakeholder theory by Jansson (2005) on the other hand contends that, an organization should create value for its various stakeholders who are affected by its business actions and decisions and not only its shareholders. The theory further highlights the significance of conducting business operations by taking into consideration the larger societal benefits. In this case, the findings were in line with corporate social responsibility where the mine companies had an interest in the development of the nation and its people in terms of education.  Ministry of Mines and Mineral Development (2004) stated that the mining industry was the single largest private sector employer in Zambia, by then employing approximately 37,000 people, and as such had played a leading role in establishing a social and welfare charter for workers across the country. Cheelo (2016) further indicated that Zambia possessed a pool of skilled workers, both technical and professional, which underpinned the mining industry, and had a well-established system of tertiary education that would ensure a flow of appropriately trained people to meet the anticipated expansion of exploration and mining activities.

As part of its CSR activities, the mine had rendered assistance to schools in the area. In recent past, the company had put up the water tank at Kamoto Secondary, donated teaching and learning materials to schools. The mine had conducted sensitization programmes in school for healthy living and conducted motivational talks. The research findings indicated that, the mining firm had sent some students from their own industry to conduct both sensitisation programmes and motivational talks in schools around the district of Sandwe. This bordered on providing knowledge and encouragement to learners to take their learning seriously.  The respondents agreed that the mine had positively contributed to Secondary Education in Sandwe District.

Further findings revealed that, the mining company had contributed positively not only to Kamoto Secondary school and Sandwe District in particular but to Central province as a whole. The mine had built more than two schools in the province, donated computers, graded and expanded feeder roads leading to government schools, constructed Computer and Science laboratory rooms at various schools, and built ablution blocks. The mine had been supplying laboratory apparatus and education materials to Secondary schools in the district.  Infact, the charitable responsibility part in the stakeholder theory by Jansson (2005) encourages organization to contribute to society’s projects even when they are independent of the particular business.

The CSR refers to business practices involving initiatives that benefit society and encompass a wide range of tactics, from giving away a portion of a company’s proceeds to charity, to implementing greener business operations with one primary focus on the environment. In addition, the businesses have a lot of resources that can benefit charities and local community programmes (Kalaluka, 2007). The mining company may construct football stadia in promotion of sports in education sector. None of these acts arise as obligations extending from the day-to-day operations of the business involved. Instead, these are public acts of generosity that represent a view that businesses, like everyone in the world, have some obligation to support the general welfare in ways determined by the needs of the surrounding community (Mc Williams and Siegel, 2001).

While the mining companies were seen helping the community in terms education provision as a way of enhancing their Corporate Social Responsibility, the rate and scale of their contribution to education were restricted and limited to a smaller community of Sandwe District which is closer to the mine, neglecting the bigger area in the province as only one District Sandwe had benefited. Social Exchange Theory by Homans and Blau (1989) involves comparing the cost of action to its benefits. It explains that human beings always try to avoid losses or costs and maximize benefits or rewards. In this scenario, the mining company had not done much in terms of contribution to secondary education compared to the profits and benefits it had been getting through mining operations in Zambia.

Corporate Social Responsibility programmes and projects in secondary education initiated by the mining company must vividly be taking place across the province in particular and nation at large. Mudenda and Bordoville (1988) questioned the kind of CSR which seemed unique among most mining conglomerates in Africa where more often than not, companies would rather concentrate on one sector of education. For example, primary education forgetting the university and secondary school levels. The findings of this study, established that the mining company under investigation made strives to contribute to secondary education in a narrow sense as opposed to the bigger picture. Most of the projects done were not at a larger scale and the funds spent on such were far from colossal.

Jansson’s stakeholder theory (2005) states that, the companies’ CSR programmes must make a positive impact in the communities in which they operate from. Corporate Social Responsibility is about giving back to the community that keep the business of an organization afloat. A company with a social good culture lets the employees know they are working for something that is bigger than them, their business is not one dimensional but rather two and more importantly caring about the people (Maimunah, 2009). The Zambian government has for a long time depended on the mining companies for its national development (GDP) through revenue collected from the mines. Simutanyi (2008) revealed that copper continued to play a key role for a foreseeable future. At its peak in the late 1960s and early 1970s, copper mining accounted for more than 80% of the country’s foreign exchange earnings, over 50% of government revenue and at least 20% of total formal sector employment. However, the mining firm under investigation needed to do more, since Zambia’s national education is heavily dependent on copper proceeds. Nampundwe mine should not just focus on one district and one province, but instead spread its CSR to all the ten provinces of the country by initiating activities, through deliberate policies. For example, setting up secondary schools supported by the mining firm.  From the above, it can be deduced that though some strides and efforts have been made by the mining firm in enhancing its Corporate Social Responsibility in secondary education, much can still be done. A good amount from the proceeds could have been given back to the community especially in the area of secondary education. There is always a link between mining and education because mining companies provide access to education through CSR projects. The Zambian government spends 3.3% of public funding on education (Ruhuoma, 2015). For this reason of low expenditure in education, there is a need to integrate economic and social policy within the public private sector relationship. There is a need to take advantage of the public-private partnerships in which the government and public sector can work together especially on infrastructure projects. Infrastructure is a critical need in Zambian schools. Infrastructure needs identified such as teacher’s accommodation, classroom blocks and bathrooms especially for girls are vital to the success of the education sector.

Two decades ago, the mining industry used to cater about 17% of the total wage-earning population of the country. In absolute terms in 2016, between 58 000 and 62 000 people were employed in this sector at that time there were 14 million Zambians. These numbers employed under the mines did not give good reading as such the country needed to diversify in all its economic endeavors (Mudenda and Bordoville, 1988). This kind of Corporate Social responsibility seems unique among most mining conglomerates in Africa, more often than not, companies would rather concentrate on one sector of education for example University Education. The situation in Zambia seems not peculiar.

The blame on the other hand may go to the government of the republic of Zambia, for not putting in place good legislation enabling the host community to benefit a certain percentage from the mining proceeds. The above view was confirmed by two studies; Fraser and Lungu (2009) and Ministry of Mines and Mineral Development (2004). Lungu (2009) reported that the development agreements between government and investors typically passed the responsibility for the up keep of mining townships from mining companies to the local municipal authorities. Further, Ministry of Mines and Mineral Development (2004) which stated that a new Mining Act was put in place in 1995 whose main features were: the divestiture of government from the business of mining through privatization of the mines, the liberalization of the fiscal policy and the provision of several tax concessions to mining companies. The Mining Act did not capture the aspect of education being part of the mining firms and more importantly the enhancing of Corporate Social Responsibility to education sector. When investment is being rolled out and being advocated for, the investors have to comply to the recipient country’s laid laws.

In line with objective number 2 which was to ascertain education infrastructure development the mining company has initiated in the secondary education in Kamoto. The research findings clearly showed the following; the mine had built Kamoto Secondary School, and Kamoto Basic School. Particularly, the mining entity had constructed a 1×6 classroom block, two 1×2 classroom block, two (2) science laboratory rooms and one (1) computer laboratory, two (2) ablution blocks and school wall fence.  The mining company had also constructed toilets at Kamoto Sand Basic school.  The mine had resurfaced the road leading to Kamoto Secondary School and Kamoto Basic School and the Health Centre. The findings indicated 44 of 50 participants representing 88% agreed that the mining firm had enhanced infrastructure in the area while 6 representing 12% neither agreed nor disagreed. The results indicated positive contribution by the mining firm. Nonetheless, there were mixed feelings amongst the participants on infrastructure development.

The findings in this study were in line with Deshmukh (2017) study in India on Corporate Social Responsibility in education which showed that, CSR mostly involved steps to promote education among local communities by building schools, scholarships, helping schools run efficiently by providing teaching aids, books, uniform, shoes, and bags. It involved building secondary schools in localities that do not have one and train teachers. The modern infrastructure put-up by the mining company had motivated learners in the district. The pass-rate had increased.

Below are the statistics showing the pass rate for the grade 12 school leavers for the period of five years.

  Table1. grade 12 Pass rate   

The table above shows the improvement in both enrolment and the pass rate. This was attributed to the accessibility to secondary education by many due to increased infrastructure. Hommns and Blau (1989) stated in the Exchange Theory that, individuals try to attract each other into a relationship of exchange in giving some indication that the other person will get a reward than loss. Without this prospect the other person would not be drawn into a relationship. Despite constructing limited number of infrastructures in the area by the mining firm, research participants recognised a number of benefits they derive from Kamoto Mine’s projects such as modernizing the area.

Further results showed that, the mining entity had rehabilitated some roads leading to learning institutions. The mine had expanded and resurfaced rural roads leading to government schools, constructed computer and science laboratory rooms in schools, and built ablution blocks. This was confirmed by almost all the respondents that participated in answering questionnaires and interview guide. The smooth operations of schools dependent on road network linking to the rest of the country and local community saw the importance of this project. The stakeholder theory maintains that an organization should create value for its various stakeholders who are affected by its business actions and decisions and not only its shareholders. One of the primary functions of a business, is to serve the needs of its stakeholders. In my observation this was a strong case in which the mining entity had indeed ploughed back into the community.

Unlike Deshmukh’s study (2017), this study reviewed infrastructure incentives limited to construction of classroom block at schools which were already existing. If mining firm under investigation would have been as responsible as the mines in India, most of the school dropouts in local communities would have attained secondary and tertiary education.  From the findings in the study, the researcher suggested that, the mining firm did not spread its CSR across the country as it is known education is a public good. Cuartero and Leva (2014) research findings in India went hand-in-hand with this study’s results, that the main positive impact of mining companies was the generation of employment opportunities for local people, which consequently benefits education sector because parents can afford to send their children to school not necessary injecting a good amount mining proceeds direct into education.

The findings in line with objective 3 revealed that Kamoto mine had training policies to maintain and manage learning and development systems which provided employees with the opportunity to obtain necessary knowledge, competencies, experience and qualifications to meet strategic operational and human resources goals. The findings indicated that the mining firm trained some teachers and learners in computers. Learners have been trained in survival skills and HIV and AIDS and other sexual transmission infections. At Kamoto Secondary School, teachers and learners had been trained in Information and Communication Technology (ICT). The mining company had also trained teachers in First Aid and safety.

Currently, outstanding learners were not only trained but offered scholarships to acquire tertiary education at various institutions of learning across the country. The mining company training policies focus on the acquisition of skills, knowledge, competencies, experience and qualification to meet the demands of the modern world. The company is committed to develop, implement and maintain good relationship with the school authorities in the district.

While the findings clearly showed that the mining company had attached and contributed greatly to the development and growth of the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP) through the support that they had rendered the locals to pursue education activities, much needed to be done in line with needs of the society. Hence, research participants had mixed views on the issue. Eight participants representing 16 % disagreed while 40 participants representing 80 % agreed and 2 participants representing 4% neither agreed nor disagreed.

It is the researchers’ considered view that, there is a lot of expectations from the communities surrounding the mining firm in particular and the Zambian people in general when investors come to invest in the mines. The ecosystem of Zambia’s education is very vast as well as complex. It has been widely holding attention from public as well as private stakeholders. That’s why the Zambian government is investing quantum of funds in primary, secondary and tertiary education. This is premised on the fact that, education is a key sector for companies to spend their CSR because this sector exists in all geographic areas. In present era, education is a backbone of any society and quality of education play vital role in social, political and economic development.

The mining companies’ contributions towards infrastructure development are about 24% of their total investment. The business development of 8% is where the mining companies offer business dealings to the mines. For example, the supply of goods and services to the mines ranging from machinery to stationery, these are used to keep the mines afloat so that copper production continues because this is the main stay of Zambia’s economy. Although the country has diversified, the mining industry remains a viable industry to earn Zambia’s forex recommends (Siankulu, 2022).

No doubt, Zambia’s education is lacking in many aspects but government is taking several steps to reframe the entire education ecosystem. Government in 2023 National Budget allocated K23.3 billion or 13.9 percent to education sector. The allocation reflects Government’s continued commitment to facilitating the empowerment of the Zambian people with the knowledge and skills necessary to fight poverty and illiteracy. Of this amount, K1.5 billion was for construction, rehabilitation and completion of ongoing school infrastructure while K358.4 million was for the recruitment of 4,500 additional teachers (Ministry of Finance and National Planning Budget Address, 2023: 46). In a country of over 20 million people, the efforts of government alone could not do enough to make remarkable change so there is enormous need of collaboration of government and corporate to jointly work for the positive impact of education on society and CSR is an  important tool for improving education sector. This scenario demands a more dynamic and responsible behavior with respect to the sustainable development from the mining companies. The arrival of new investors in the mining industry generates expectations in the population that possibly sees the mining firm as the main agent that will solve the problems in education. As such it is incumbent upon the mining firms to take corporate social responsibility serious to supplement government efforts in providing social services in communities where they operate from.

Maimunah (2009) stated that the goal of CSR was to embrace responsibility for the company’s actions and encourage a positive impact through its activities on the environment, consumers, employees, communities, stakeholder’s and all other members of the public Sphere. To a large extent mining activity benefit the investors themselves and few others and not the learners. This is in line with Social Capital Group (2009) which articulated that the norms that regulate the mining activities’ performance in Peru have increased significantly since the decade of the nineties. Although there is a tendency towards improving the government’s capacity to enforce these laws, there is still a long way to walk.

The study established that Kamoto had a deliberate policy of sponsoring not only its employees but employees’ children as well and more importantly the support of community schools. Kamoto also under the theory of corporate social responsibility and its role in community development helped the community by admitting about 30% school leavers and 70% of its employees for in-service training which help them acquire artisan skills. Similarly, in the early establishment of the mining industry in Zambia and their quest to solicit for skilled workforce, the School of Mines at the University of Zambia was established in 1973 and comprised three Departments Geology, Mining Engineering, and Metallurgy and Mineral Processing. The mining industry had provided training through customized short courses and programmes of research linked to immediate problem-solving requirements identified by the mining industry.

The mining company is reported to have been sponsoring education tours for learners in    Sandwe District. Kamoto mine official explained that, education has been cardinal to its Corporate Social responsibility programme. The mining company and government have partnered in the private public partnership to improve the standards of education in the country.  He stated that, the mining company is passionate about Zambia’s education sector hence it was seeking to support the community in which it operates. He disclosed that 302 secondary school pupils in Zambia’s Central had been sponsored by the mine to tertiary level in fields medicine, mining and business to study in Australia, India, Namibia and the United Kingdom. The above findings were a clear indication that, the mining company had attached great importance to the development and growth of the national economy by endeavoring to sponsor some learners to pursue diplomas and degrees at various institutions of learning. One teacher said:

Kamoto mining company had sponsored quiet a number of learners to pursue degree courses.

The findings showed that, the mining entity had enhanced the welfare of the community in Kamoto area through a number of donations, constructions and rehabilitations. Further findings indicated that, the mining firm had also donated teaching and learning materials in many schools, supplied laboratory apparatus, computers, and various sports wear not only to schools but to the community as well. The mine had put in place the policy to uplift the health of learners in particular and the health of the community in general. Through this policy the mine has managed to build a clinic near Kamoto primary and Kamoto Secondary School.

The corporations that primarily focus upon implementing tasks and functions that are dedicated towards promoting well-being of the community have to create an interdependence with the community. In order to be successful in the implementation of tasks and activities, it is necessary to conduct an analysis of the needs and requirements of the members of the community. When the members of the corporation form the viewpoint that community members need certain goods or services, then they aim to carry out their tasks and activities in a well-organized manner. When firms are able to effectively implement the tasks and activities to promote community well-being, they are also able to render a significant contribution in alleviating the societal problems of poverty, illiteracy, homelessness and unemployment. Therefore, it can be stated that interdependence is regarded as an essential aspect in corporation and community.

Globally, there is a large consensus regarding the fact that People-Planet-Profit, also known as the triple bottom line are words that should be used and practiced in every organization. Following this three-pillar approach, CSR can include economic, social, and environmental issues or a combination of these three pillars (Garriga et al, 2004). In practice, each CSR theory presents four dimensions related to profits, political performance, social demands and ethical values. Therefore, the challenge for business is not so much to define CSR as it is to understand how CSR is socially constructed in a specific context and how to take this into account when business strategies are developed. The mining firms should not only be interested in profit maximization only but support the host nation in terms of education and environment protection. On the other hand, it is worth noting the mining firm CSR had contributed to the increased access to education in Zambia even though we cannot fully trace how significant the increment is in terms of figures.

CONCLUSION

The results of this study show that there is need for the mining firm to do more. It is critical to note that while there could be several reasons why the mining firms are needed to initiate viable CSR activities, primarily they need to compensate social and environmental costs associated with mining in the communities where the operate. The results in this study further show recipient schools improved in terms of academic results. Thus, it is of utmost importance to enhance Corporate Social responsibility in education in order to improve the standards and quality of education in Zambia. Mining entities in association with the government should work as partners in fostering and making quality education accessible to all irrespective of their status. The mining firms in Zambia need to enhance their Corporate Social Responsibility as a continuing commitment to behave ethically and contribute to national economic development while improving the quality of life of the workforce and their families as well as of the local community and society at large. The role of government and organisations in education ecosystem is crucial and complex, hence collaborative effort is vital in offering quality education in Zambia.

It is therefore prudent that the Zambian government working in collaboration with the mining firms conduct a risk analysis on the mining firms’ CSR in the education sector. The analysis should be based on the equitably allocation of resources towards education improvement thereby attaining the overall goal for education in the host community. Anchored on the findings from the risk analysis, a mitigation measure can be established which will obviously see the review of the current utilization of royalties and rates paid to the central government. A clear policy should be developed to guide CSR by the mining entities and the how concession on royalties and rates will be determined with consideration of a certain percentage channeled back to the host communities. In this way a conscious effort by the government and the mines will be assured aimed at improving the education standard in Zambia. The development of the policy will help to resolve a number of bottlenecks that both the mine and host community encounter in the area of CSR in the education sector.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. The mining firms should develop a CSR strategy to be integrated into the business strategy;
2. More studies should be conducted in order to ascertain how the mining industry is contributing to secondary education in Zambia through their Corporate Social Responsibility since the mining sector is the major contributor to the development of the Zambia’s economy in general and the Zambia’s Treasury in particular; and
3. Government needs to put in place legislation that will encourage business corporations to have CSR policies especially in areas such as education so that they give back to the communities where they operate from.

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